China
 

22 Oct 1862 - 10 Nov 1872 War Ensign	10 Nov 1872 - 1889 (Jack 1863-1872)	1889 - 12 Feb 1912; 1 Jul 1917 - 12 Jul 1917
1 Jan 1912 - 22 Dec 1915; 22 Mar 1916 - 1 Jul 1917; 12 Jul 1917 -  8 Oct 1928	22 Dec 1915 - 22 Mar 1916	8 Oct 1928 - 27 Sep 1949
Adopted 27 Sep 1949

Map of China Hear National Anthem "Yiyongjun Jinxingqu" (The March of the Volunteers) Adopted 27 Sep 1949 (provisional to 4 Dec 1982) Former de facto Anthem "Dongfang Hong" (The East is Red) (1966 - c.1978) Constitution   (4 Dec 1982) China Military Regions Map Ethno-linguistic Map of China Map of China in 1912 Civil War Map (1945-1949) Capital: Beijing Currency: Yuan Renminbi (CNY)  National Holiday: 1 Oct (1949) Guoqing Jie (National Day) Population: 1,394,015,977 (2019) GDP: $25.36 trillion (2018)  Exports: $2.49 trillion (2018) Imports: $2.14 trillion (2018)  Ethnic groups: Han Chinese 91.6%, Zhuang 1.3%, other (includes Hui 0.79%, Manchu 0.78%, Uighur 0.75%, Miao 0.70%, Yi 0.65%, Tujia 0.62%, Tibetan 0.47%, Mongol 0.44%, Dong 0.21%, Buyei 0.21%, Yao 0.20%, Bai 0.14%, Korean 0.13%, Hani 0.12%, Li 0.10%, Kazakh 0.10%, Dai 0.9%, and other nationalities) 7.1% (2010) Total Active Armed Forces: 2,285,000 (2010) Declared Nuclear Power (1964): est. 410 weapons (2023) Merchant marine: 5,594 ships (2019) Religions: Buddhist 18.2%, Christian 5.1%, Muslim 1.8%, folk religion 21.9%, Hindu 0.1%, Jewish  0.1%, other 0.7% (includes Daoist [Taoist]), unaffiliated 52.2% (2010) note: state is officially atheist  International Organizations/Treaties (from 1949): AC (observer), ADB, AfDB (nonregional), AIIB, ANT (consultative), APA, APEC, ARF, ASEAN (dialogue partner), BIS, BRICS, BTWC, CDB (nonregional), CICA, CTBT (signatory), CWC, EAS, EBRD, ECOWAS (partner), ENMOD, ESCR (signatory), FAO, FATF, G-5, G-20, G-24 (special invitee), G-77 (observer), IADB, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICRM, ICSID, IDA, IEA (association), IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, IMSO, InOC (observer), Interpol, IOC, IOM, IORA (partner), IPU, IRENA, ISA, ISO, ITSO, ITU, LAIA (observer), MIGA, NAM (observer), NDB, NPT, NSG, NTBT, OAS (observer), OECD (partner), OPCW, OST, PA (observer), Paris Club (associate), PCA, PIF (partner), RCEP, SAARC (observer), SCO, SICA (observer), UN, UNCLOS, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNFCC, UNFCC-KP, UNFCC-PA, UNHCR, UNIDO, UNSC (permanent), UNWTO, UPU, WADB (nonregional), WCO, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTO, ZC China Index Chronology   c.2852 BC - c.2070 BC      Legendary Era of the Three Sovereigns and Five                              Emperors. c.2698 BC - c.2598 BC      Rule of the legendary Yellow Emperor, Huang-ti                             (Huang-ti) Gongsun Xuanyuan (Kung-sun Hsüan-yüan). c.1915 BC - c.1555 BC      Xia (Hsia) semi-mythical dynasty rules. c.1555 BC - May 1046 BC    Shang (Shang), also known as Yin (Yin), state. May 1046 BC - 741 BC       (Western) Zhou (Chou) state, capital at Haojing                              (Hao-ching). 741 BC - 256 BC            (Eastern) Zhou (Chou) state, capital at Chengzhou                              (Ch'eng-chou). 551 BC - 479 BC            Lifetime of the philosopher Kong Qiu (K'ung Ch'iu),                              called Kongzi (K'ung Tzu)(= Master Kong, and                              Latinized as 'Confucius'). c.476 BC - 22 Dec 221 BC   Era of the Warring States, disintegration of the                              Zhou (Chou) state. The main Seven Warring states                              were: Qin (Ch'in), Han (Han)(403-220), Wei (Wei)                              (403-225), Zhao (Chao)(403-222), Qi (Ch'i), Chu                              (Ch'u), and Yan (Yen) alongside the the Zhou king's                              land. c.470 BC - c.391 BC        Lifetime of the philosopher Mozi (Mo Tzu),                              (= Master Mo, Latinized as 'Micius'). 22 Dec 221 BC              Ying Zheng (Ying Cheng) King of Qin (Ch'in) having                              conquered all his rivals, assumed imperial status                              as Shi Huangdi (Shih Huang-ti)(b. 259 BC - d. 210                              BC). He rules as the first Emperor of Qin (Ch'in)                              until 10 Sep 210 BC. 22 Dec 221 BC - Oct 207 BC Qin (Ch'in) state (Qin was spelled in Sanskrit as                              Cina, and later Latinized as 'China' in English). 28 Feb 202 BC-10 Jan 9 AD  Han (Han) state. 10 Jan 9 AD - 6 Oct 23 AD  Xin (Hsin) state, usurper Wang Mang (b. c.45 BC -                              d. 23 AD) interrupts the Han state. 11 Mar 23 - 25 Nov 220     Han (Han) state (restored). 10 Dec 220 - 10 Jul 420    Era of disunity under Warlords. China is not unified                              under any one power. Huns, Turks and other nomadic                              tribes invade the northern regions. The 220 - 280                              era is also called the "Era of Three Kingdoms." 10 Dec 220 -  4 Feb 266    Wei (Wei), declared in the center north (called Cao                              Wei [Ts'ao Wei], i.e. empire of Wei ruled by the                              family of Cao, by historians to avoid confusion                              other Chinese polities named "Wei"). 15 May 221-Dec 263/Jan 264 Han state (restored) in the southwest. (called Shu                              Han to define the re-established empire of Han                              on part of its former territory, historically                              referred to as "Shu"). Defeat and occupation                              occurred in the eleventh month of the lunar year                              (18 Dec 263 - 15 Jan 264) by Cao Wei. Nov/Dec 222 - 1 May 280    Wu (Wu) state at Wuchang (Wu-ch'ang)(now Ezhou                              [O-chou], Hubei) in south, a vassal ruler of Cao                              Wei proclaims a separate reign, acceded to the                              imperial throne 23 May 229 (called "Sun Wu" or                              "Dong Wu" to avoid confusion with other Chinese                              states named Wu).  8 Feb 266 - 11 Dec 316    (Western) Jin (Chin) state at Luoyang (Lo-yang).  6 Apr 317 - 20 Dec 403    (Eastern) Jin (Chin) state at Jiankang (Chien-                              k'ang)(now Nanjing). 20 Feb 386 - 21 Aug 534    (Northern) Wei (Wei)(named Dai [Tai]), a vassal                              of Jin, to May/Jun 386) state in northern China.  1 Jan 404 - 19 Jun 404    (Southern) Chu (Ch'u) state at Jiankang (Chien-                              k'ang)(now Nanjing). 21 Jun 404 -  5 Jul 420    (Eastern) Jin (Chin) state (restored). 10 Jul 420 - 10 Feb 589    Division into Northern and Southern dynasties. 10 Jul 420 - 27 May 479    (Southern) Song (Sung) at Jiankang (now Nanjing). 29 May 479 - 20 Apr 502    (Southern) Qi (Ch'i) at Jiankang (now Nanjing). 30 Apr 502 - 12 Nov 557    (Southern) Liang (Liang) at Jiankang (now Nanjing). 21 Aug 534 - 14 Feb 557    (Western) Wei state at Chang'an (now Xi'an). 18 Nov 534 -  7 Jun 550    (Eastern) Wei state at Ye (Yeh)(now Handan                              [Han-tan], Hebei [Ho-pei]).  9 Jun 550 - 22 Feb 577    (Northern) Qi (Ch'i) state at Ye (Yeh)(now Handan,                              [Han-tan], in Hebei [Ho-pei]). spring 555 - 26 Oct 587    (Western) Wei at Jingzhou (Ching-chou)(former                              Jiangling [Chiang-ling], Hubei) 15 Feb 557 -  4 Mar 581    (Northern) Zhou (Chou) state at Chang'an (Ch'ang-                              an)(modern Xi'an [Hsi-an]). 16 Nov 557 - 12 Feb 589    Chen (Ch'en) state at Jiankang (Chien-k'ang)                              (modern Nanjing).  4 Mar 581 - 23 May 619    Sui (Sui) state (Zheng [Cheng] resistance continues                              at Luoyang [Lo-yang] to 4 Jun 621). 18 Jun 618 – 16 Oct 690    Tang (T'ang) state in Chang'an (now Xi'an [Hsi-an]). 16 Oct 690 - 22 Feb 705    Zhou (Chou) state (called "Wu Zhou" or "Southern                         Zhou" by historians) under Empress Wu Zhao (Wu                         Chao)(b. 624 - d. 705). 23 Feb 705 -  1 Jun 907    Tang (T'ang)(restored)(proclaimed 3 Mar 705). 27 Feb 907 -  4 Jan 1123   Great Liao (Da Liao [Ta Liao])(called the Khitan                              Empire by historians). Northern Liao (officially                              Great Liao) rule from Xijin Fu (Hsi-chin Fu)                              1122-1123, while in 1123 the Jurchens capture the                              Liao capital of Qingzhong (Ch'ing-chung)(south of                              present-day Hohhot). Liao Emperor Tianzuo is                              captured by the Jin 26 Mar 1125 ending Great Liao                              dynasty. Liao remnants continue 1124 - 1218 in                              western China and Central Asia (called the                              "Western Liao" or "Qara Khitai" by historians). 12 May 907 -  3 Feb 960    Collapse of central authority, called the "Era of                              Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms" by historians.  1 Jun 907 - 18 Nov 932    Great Liang (Da Liang [Ta Liang]) state, (called                              "Later Liang" by historians); proclaimed in                              Bianzhou (Pien-chou)(now Kaifeng [K'ai-feng] in                              Henan) on 5 Jun 907. 13 May 923 - 11 Jan 937    Great Tang (Da Tang [Ta T'ang])(called the "Later                              Tang" by historians), proclaimed in Weizhou                              (Wei-chou)(now near Daming [Ta-ming], Hebei) on                              13 May 923. 18 Nov 932                 Great Liang collapses after military defeat by                              the armies of the (Later) Tang. 28 Nov 936 - 10 Jan 947    Great Jin (Da Jin [Ta Chin]) state, (called "Later                              Jin" by historians), is proclaimed at a public                              ceremony either in Jinyang (Chin-yang)(now                              Taiyuan [T'ai-yüan], Shanxi) or in Liulin                              (Liu-lin). 11 Jan 937                 Great Tang (T'ang) collapses after military defeat                              by the armies of the (Later) Jin (Chin). 17 Dec 938 -  4 Jan 1123   Great Liao (Da Liao [Ta Liao]) rules North China                              and Mongolia; called Khitan (Qidan [Ch'i-tan])                              or Great Khitan (Da Qidan [Ta Ch'i-tan]) state                              bf.937-17 Dec 938 and Great Khitan 983-1066). The                              "Jurchen Jin" capture the five capitals of Liao:                              Eastern Capital in 1116, Supreme Capital 1120,                              Central Capital 1122, and Western Capital 1122.                              The Southern Capital, also called Yanjing                              (Yen-ching)(modern Beijing), is captured on 31                              Dec 1122 and the Jurchen ruler entered it on                              4 Jan 1123. Former Liao ruler Yelü Yanxi (Yeh-lü                              Yen-shi)(b. 1075 - d. 1156) continues in rebellion                              in various part of Liao until capture by "Jurchen                              Jin" on 26 Mar 1125. 10 Jan 947                 Great Jin (Chin) collapses following the occupation                              of the capital of Kaifeng by a belligerent force.  5 Jul 947 -  2 Jan 951    Great Han (Da Han [Ta Han])(also called "Later Han"                              by historians), proclaimed in Kaifeng (K'ai-feng).  2 Jan 951                 Great Han collapsed following the assassination of                              its last emperor, and then the occupation of                              the capital of Kaifeng (K'ai-feng) by invading                              army of the (Later) Zhou (Chou) on 3 Jan 951. A                              remnant Han state regroups 9 Feb 951-979 as                              Northern Han kingdom (also called Eastern Han) at                              Taiyuan (T'ai-yüan). 13 Feb 951 -  3 Feb 960    Great Zhou (Da Zhou [Ta Chou]) state, (called the                              "Later Zhou" by historians), proclaimed in Kaifeng                              (K'ai-feng) on 13 Feb 951.  3 Feb 960                 Great Zhou (Chou) collapses after its last emperor                              vacated the throne and the establishment of                              Song is proclaimed.  4 Feb 960 -  9 Jan 1127   Song (Sung) state is proclaimed at public ceremonies                              in Kaifeng (K'ai-feng). 10 Nov 1038 - 28 Aug 1227  Great Xia (Da Xia [Ta Hsia]), officially the White                              High Great Xia State (Bai Gao Da Xia Guo), at                              Xingqing (Hsin-ch'ing)(Yinchuan [Yin-ch'uan])                         (called the "Western Xia" or "Tangut" state by                         historians). 28 Jan 1115 - 30 May 1233  Great Jin (Chin)(Da Jin [Ta Chin]) in northern                               China (also called "Jurchen Jin" to differentiate                              it from an earlier Jin state). Kaifeng (K'ai-                              feng) captured by the Mongols 30 May 1233 and on                              9 Feb 1234 the Mongols destroy remnants of the                              Great Jin at Caizhou (Ts'ai-chou).  9 Jan 1127                Song collapses following the occupation of the                              capital Kaifeng by invading Jin (Chin) forces. 20 Apr 1127 - 12 Jun 1127  Great Chu (Da Chu [Ta Ch'u]) established with                              Zhang Bangchang (Chang Pang-ch'ang)(b. 1081 - d.                              1127) as emperor by the support of the Jin. 12 Jun 1127 - 21 Feb 1276  Song (Sung) (restored). 18 Dec 1271 - 14 Sep 1368  Great Yuan (Da Yuan [Ta Yüan]) founded by Mongols. 21 Feb 1276                Song (Sung) government ceases to function by                              imperial edict, pending the occupation of the                              capital of Lin'an (now Hangzhou [Hang-chou]) by                              the invading army of Yuan. Song remnants continue                              resistance in Fujian (Fu-chien) and Guangdong                              (Kuang-tung) 14 Jun 1276 - 19 Mar 1279. 19 Mar 1279                Yuan defeats the last remnant of Song forces at                              Battle of Yamen (Ya-men)(Naval Battle of Mount Ya) 23 Jan 1368                Great Ming (Da Ming [Ta Ming]) state proclaimed                               at public ceremonies in Nanjing (Nan-ching)                              prefecture of Yingtian (Ying-t'ien)(now in city                              of Shangqiu [Shang-ch'iu], Henan). Taking Dadu                              (Khanbaliq) on 14 Sep 1368, Shangdu in 1369, and                              Yingchang in 1370. 17 Feb 1616                Nurhaci forms the Jurchen clans into a unified                              polity as the Great Jin (Da Jin [Ta Chin])                              (referred to by historians "Later Jin"). In 1635,                              Hong Taiji (Hung T'ai-chi) renamed the Jurchen                              people and the Jurchen language, "Manchu." 15 May 1636                Great Qing (Da Qing [Ta Ch'ing]; in Manchu Daicing)                              proclaimed in Shengjing (Cheng-ching)/Shenyang                              (Shen-yang)(taking Beijing [Pei-ching] on 6 Jun                              1644, and Nanjing [Nan-ching] on 6 Jun 1645).  8 Feb 1644 - 1646         Great Shun (Da Shun [Ta Shun]) proclaimed at Xi'an                              by rebel Li Zicheng (Li Tzu-ch'eng)(b. 1606 - d.                              1645), taking the capital Shuntian (Shun-t'ien)                              on 25 Apr 1644. 25 Apr 1644                Ming polity collapses following the occupation of                              the capital, Shuntian (Shun-t'ien)(now Beijing                              [Pei-ching]), by forces of Li Zicheng (s.a.).                              Ming elements remain in dissidence in Southern                              China until defeat by the Qing in Jan 1659. 28 May 1858                Left-bank of the Amur River annexed by Russia. 14 Nov 1860                Right-bank of the Amur River, below the Ussuri                              junction, annexed by Russia.  4 Jul 1871 - Feb 1881     Russia occupies Ghulja (Ili basin) region.  2 Jun 1895 - 25 Oct 1945  Taiwan annexed by Japan. 14 Jul 1900 -  7 Sep 1901  France, Germany, Italy, Japan, Russia, U.K., U.S.,                              and Austria-Hungary occupy Tientsin (Tianjin)                              (14 Jul 1900) and Peking (Beijing)(15 Aug 1901)                              and other areas during the anti-colonial "Boxer                              Rebellion" (Yihetuan Yundong [I-ho-t'uan Yün-tung]                              literally "Militia United in Righteousness")                              2 Nov 1899 - 7 Sep 1901. 10 Oct 1911                Revolution begins against the imperial government.  3 Dec 1911                Republic of China (Zhonghua minguo [Chung-hua                              min-kuo]). 12 Feb 1912                Abdication of the last Emperor proclaimed in                              Beijing. Jan 1913 -  7 Oct 1951     Tibet de facto independent.  1 Dec 1911                Outer Mongolia declares independence.  1 Jul 1917 - 12 Jul 1917  Empire of Great Qing (Da Qing diguo [Ta Ch'ing                              ti-kuo]), proclaiming restoration of monarchy. 19 Feb 1920 -  3 Feb 1921  Mongolia briefly re-incorporated. 18 Sep 1931 - 15 Aug 1945  Japanese occupy Manchuria (see Manchukuo).  7 Nov 1931 - 22 Sep 1937  Communists declare the Soviet Republic of China. 12 Nov 1933 -  6 Feb 1934  East Turkestan revolts and 12 Nov 1944-16 Jun 1946. Aug 1937 - Sep 1945        Japanese occupation of Northeast China, Hainan,                               Yellow River Valley and most of the coastal area.  1 Oct 1949                People's Republic of China (Zhonghua renmin                              gongheguo [Chung-hua jen-min kung-ho-kuo]).  8 Dec 1949                Remnants of the Nationalist Republic of China                              forces evacuate to Taiwan.  1 Jul 1997                Re-integration of the former British colony                               of Hong Kong. 20 Dec 1999                Re-integration of the former Portuguese colony                               of Macau. People's Republic of China Administrative Divisions Former Colonies & Concessions Imperial China (1572-1912)     Rebellions (1851-1874) Taiping Shengping Dacheng Pingnan Guo  Republic of China: Warlords (1911-1928) Republic of China: Nationalists  (1917-1949) Alternative Governments (1927-1934) Soviet Republic of China  (1931-1937) Japanese Occupation  (1937-1945) Manchukuo (1932-1945) Inner Mongolia (1936-1945) Kashgaria (1693-1877) --------------------- East Turkestan (1933-1946) Dörben Oyirad (1620-1757) -------------------- Qomul (1647-1934) Tibet (until 1950) Historical Maps of China Transliteration note: Names are given in Hanyu Pinyin romanization, without tone-marking diacritics (the first edition of Hanyu Pinyin was approved and adopted by China on 11 Feb 1958). Beginning in the early 1980's, Western publications began using the Hanyu Pinyin romanization system instead of earlier romanization systems. Prior to 1979, names are given in the older Wade-Giles romanization in parentheses, i.e. Li Yuanhong (Li Yüan-hung). For the period 1912-1948, common bynames and nicknames are listed in quotes i.e. "Sun Yat-sen."

Imperial China
 

Map of Chinese Empire	Former National Anthem "Li Zhongtang Yue" [Li Chung-t'ang Yüeh] (Tune of Li Zhongtang) (1896-1911) (semi-official  and royal anthem)	Hear National Anthem "Gong Jin'ou" [Kung Chin-ou] (Cup of Solid Gold) (4 Oct 1911-12 Feb 1912 and 1-12 Jul 1917;  first use 1675)	Constitution   (none adopted)
Capital: Beijing [Peking] (Ming: Nanjing 1368-1421, 1644-45, Beijing 1421-1644; Qing: Shengjing 1636-1644)	Currency: Wen	National Holiday 1908-1912: 7 Feb (1906) Emperor's Birthday	Population: 431,735,400 (1900)

Note: Emperors (huangdi [huang-ti]) are listed by their personal name (ming [ming]) followed by their temple name (miaohao [miao-hao])(comparable with a regnal name, but formally assigned only after the reign). Followed by [the short form of] the posthumous praise name (shi [shih]) and the era name(s)(nianhao [nien-hao]) adopted during the reign.
  Short-lived or deposed emperors, especially minors, were not normally given a temple (miaohao [miao-hao]) or a posthumous praise name (shi [shih]). Though the 'era names' (nianhao) are not strictly names of the ruler, but of a given year, they are - in 'Western' sources in particular - commonly used as indirect references of the emperors in question (i.e., the 'Qianlong Emperor', not 'Emperor Qianlong').

Emperors (Huangdi/Huang-ti)
- Ming -
19 Jul 1572 - 18 Aug 1620  Zhu Yijun (Chu I-chün)             (b. 1563 - d. 1620)
                             miaohao: Shenzong (Shen-tsung)/shi: Xian huangdi (Hsien
                               huang-ti)
                             nianhao 2 Feb 1573 - 27 Aug 1620: Wanli (Wan-li)
28 Aug 1620 - 28 Sep 1620  Zhu Changluo                       (b. 1582 - d. 1620) 
                             miaohao: Guangzong (Kuang-tsung)/shi: Zhen huangdi (Chen
                               huang-ti)
                             nianhao 28 Aug 1620 - 21 Jan 1621: Taichang (T'ai-ch'ang)
 1 Oct 1620 - 30 Sep 1627  Zhu Youjiao (Chu Yu-chiao)         (b. 1605 - d. 1627)
                             miaohao: Xizong (Hsi-tsung)/ shi: Zhe huangdi (Che huang-ti)
                             nianhao 22 Jan 1621 - 4 Feb 1628: Tianqi (T'ien-ch'i)
 2 Oct 1627 - 25 Apr 1644  Zhu Youjian (Chu Yu-chien)         (b. 1611 - d. 1644)
                             miaohao: Sizong (Szu-tsung)/ shi: Lie huangdi (Lieh huang-ti)
                             nianhao 5 Feb 1628 - 25 Apr 1644: Chongzhen (Ch'ung-chen)
- Shun -
 8 Feb 1644 - 1645         Li Zicheng (Li Tzu-ch'eng)         (b. 1606 - d. 1645)
                           (in rebellion, 1642 starting in Xiangfan, 25 Apr 1644 in Beijing)
                             nianhao 8 Feb 1644 - 5 Jun 1644: Yongchang (Yung-ch'ang) 
- (Southern) Ming -
1644 - Jun 1645            Zhu Yousong (Chu Yu-sung)          (b. 1607 - d. 1646)
                           (in dissidence, in Southern China)
                             miaohao: Anzong (An-tsung)/ shi: Jian huangdi (Chien huang-ti)
                             nianhao 1645: Hongguang (Hung-kuang)
21 Jul 1645 –  6 Oct 1646  Zhu Yujian (Chu Yü-chien)          (b. 1602 - d. 1646)
                           (in dissidence, in Fuzhou)
                             miaohao: Shaozong (Shao-tsung)/shi: Xiang huangdi (Hsiang
                               huang-ti)
                             nianhao Aug 1645 – Oct 1646: Longwu (Lung-wu)
Dec 1646 – Jan 1647        Zhu Yuyue (Chu Yü-yüeh)            (b. 1605? - d. 1647)
                           (in dissidence, in Guangzhou)
                             miaohao: Wenzong (Wen-tsung)
                             nianhao Dec 1646 – Jan 1647: Shaowu (Shao-wu)
24 Dec 1646 - Jan 1659     Zhu Youlang (Chu Yu-lang)          (b. 1624 - d. 1662)
                           (in dissidence, in Southern China and Yunnan)
                             miaohao: Zhaozong (Chao-tsung)/shi: Kuang huangdi (K'uang
                               huang-ti)
                             nianhao 24 Dec 1646 -  1 Jun 1662: Yongli (Yung-li)
- (Later) Jin -
17 Feb 1616 - 30 Sep 1626  Nurhachi (Nu-erh-ha-ch'ih)         (b. 1559 - d. 1626)
                             miaohao: Taizu (T'ai-tsu)/ shi: Gao huangdi (Kao huang-ti)
                             nianhao 17 Feb 1616 - 15 Feb 1627: Tianming (T'ien-ming)
20 Oct 1626 - 15 May 1636  Hong Taiji (Hung T'ai-chi)         (b. 1592 - d. 1643)
                             miaohao: Taizong (T'ai-tsung)/ shi: Wen huangdi (Wen huang-ti) 
                             nianhao 16 Feb 1627 - 14 May 1636: Tiancong (T'ien-ts'ung)
- Qing -
15 May 1636 - 21 Sep 1643  Hong Taiji (Hung T'ai-chi)         (s.a.)
                             miaohao: Taizong (T'ai-tsung)/ shi: Wen huangdi (Wen huang-ti)
                             nianhao 15 May 1636 - 7 Feb 1644: Chongde (Ch'ung-te)
 8 Oct 1643 -  5 Feb 1661  Fulin (Fu-lin)                     (b. 1638 - d. 1661)
                             miaohao: Shizu (Shih-tsu)/ shi: Zhang huangdi (Chang huang-ti)
                             nianhao 8 Feb 1644 - 18 Feb 1662: Shunzhi (Shun-chih)
 8 Oct 1643 - 31 Dec 1650  Regents
                           - Duoergun, Prince Rui             (b. 1612 - d. 1650)
                              (To-erh-kun, Prince Jui)
                           - Jierhalang, Prince Zheng         (b. 1599 - d. 1655)
                              (Chi-erh-ha-lang, Prince Cheng)
                              (to 1647)
                           - Duoduo, Prince Yu                (b. 1614 - d. 1649)
                              (To-to, Prince Yü)
                              (1647 - 29 Apr 1649)  
 7 Feb 1661 - 20 Dec 1722  Xuanye (Hsüan-yeh)                 (b. 1654 - d. 1722)
                             miaohao: Shengzu (Sheng-tsu)/ shi: Ren huangdi (Jen huang-ti)
                             nianhao 18 Feb 1662 - 4 Feb 1723: Kangxi (K'ang-hsi)
 7 Feb 1661 - May 1669     Regents
                           - Sukesaha (Su-k'o-sa-ha)(to 1667) (d. 1667)
                           - Suoni (So-ni) (to 12 Aug 1667)   (b. 1601 - d. 1667)
                           - Aobai (Ao-pai)                   (b. 1600 - d. 1669)
                           - Ebilong (O-pi-lung) (to 1667)    (d. 1673)
10 Jul 1706 - 1707         Wei Zhiye (Wei Chih-yeh)(in rebellion)
                             nianhao 10 Jul 1706 - 1707: Wenxing (Wen-hsing)
1707 - 1708                Zhu Cihuan (Chu Tz'u-huan)         (b. 1633 - d. 1708)
                            (styled Ding wang, claiming to head the Great Ming 
                             Realm, in rebellion)
26 May 1721 - 30 Jul 1721  Zhu Yigui (Chu I-kuei)             (b. 1689/90 - d. 1721)
                            (in rebellion, rules almost exclusively on Taiwan)
                             nianhao 26 May 1721 - 30 Jul 1721: Yonghe (Yung-ho)
27 Dec 1722 -  8 Oct 1735  Yinzhen (Yin-chen)                 (b. 1678 - d. 1735)
                             miaohao: Shizong (Shih-tsung)/ shi: Xian huangdi (Hsien huang-ti)
                             nianhao 5 Feb 1723 - 11 Feb 1746: Yongzheng (Yung-cheng)
18 Oct 1735 -  9 Feb 1796  Hongli (Hung-li)                   (b. 1711 - d. 1799)
                             niaohao: Gaozong (Kao-tsung)/ shi: Chun huangdi (Ch'un huang-ti)
                             nianhao 12 Feb 1736 - 8 Feb 1796: Qianlong (Ch'ien-lung)
Dec 1786 - 10 Feb 1788     Lin Shuangwen (Lin Shuang-wen)     (b. 1756 - d. 1788)
                             (in rebellion, rules almost exclusively on Taiwan)
                             nianhao Dec 1786 - 10 Feb 1788: Shuntian (Shun-t'ien)
 9 Feb 1796 -  2 Sep 1820  Yongyan (Yung-yen)                 (b. 1760 - d. 1820)
                             niaohao: Renzong (Jen-tsung)/ shi: Rui huangdi (Jui huang-ti)
                             nianhao 9 Feb 1796 - 2 Feb 1821: Jiaqing (Chia-ch'ing)
Mar 1797 - 1797            Li Shu (Li Shu) (in rebellion)
                             nianhao Mar 1797 - 1797: Daqing (Ta-ch'ing)
 3 Oct 1820 - 25 Feb 1850  Minning (Min-ning)                 (b. 1782 - d. 1850)
                            niaohao: Xuanzong (Hsüan-tsung)/shi: Cheng huangdi (Ch'eng
                              huang-ti)
                            nianhao 3 Feb 1821 - 31 Jan 1851: Daoguang (Tao-kuang)
 9 Mar 1850 - 22 Aug 1861  Yizhu (I Chu)                      (b. 1831 - d. 1861)
                             miaohao: Wenzong (Wen-tsung)/ shi: Xian huangdi (Hsien huang-ti)
                             nianhao 1 Feb 1851 - 29 Jan 1862: Xianfeng (Hsien-feng)
21 Aug 1861 -  2 Nov 1861  Regency (imperial assistants in national affairs)
                           - Zaiyuan, Prince Yi               (b. 1816 - d. 1861)
                              (Tsai-yüan, Prince Yi)
                           - Duanhua, Prince Zheng            (b. 1807 - d. 1861)
                              (Tuan-hua, Prince Cheng)
                           - Sushun (Su-shun)                 (b. 1816 - d. 1861)
                           - Jingshou (Ching-shou)            (b. 1829 - d. 1889)
                           - Muyin (Mu-yin)                   (d. 1864)
                           - Kuangyuan (K'uang-yüan)          (b. 1815 - d. 1881)
                           - Du Han (Tu Han)                  (b. 1806 - d. 1866)
                           - Jiao Youying (Chiao Yu-ying)     (b. 1814 - d. 1887)
 2 Nov 1861 - 12 Jan 1875  Regency
                           - Empress Dowager Cian (Tz'u-an)(f)(b. 1837 - d. 1881)
                           - Empress Dowager Cixi (Tz'u-hsi)  (b. 1835 - d. 1908)
                             (f)(1st time)
                           - Yixin, Prince Gong               (b. 1833 - d. 1898)
                              (I-hsin, Prince Kung) 
                              (to 5 Mar 1865)
11 Nov 1861 - 12 Jan 1875  Zaichun (Tsai-ch'un)               (b. 1856 - d. 1875)
                             miaohao: Muzong (Mu-tsung)/ shi: Yi huangdi (I huang-ti)
                             nianhao 30 Jan 1862 - 5 Feb 1875: Tongzhi (T'ung-chih)
25 Feb 1875 - 12 Nov 1908  Zaitian (Tsai-t'ien)               (b. 1872 - d. 1908)
                             miaohao: Dezong (Te-tsung)/ shi: Jing huangdi (Ching huang-ti)                              nianhao 6 Feb 1875 - 21 Jan 1909: Guangxu (Kuang-hsü)
                             (left capital 15 Aug 1900, at Xi'an 26 Oct 1900 - 7 Jan 1902)
25 Feb 1875 -  4 Mar 1889  Empress Dowager Cixi (Tz'u-hsi)(f) (s.a.)
                            (2nd time) -Regent 
                            (de facto a 3rd time 20 Sep 1898 - 15 Nov 1908;
                            left capital 15 Aug 1900, at Xi'an 26 Oct 1900 - 7 Jan 1902)
14 Nov 1908 -  6 Dec 1911  Zaifeng, Prince Chun -Regent       (b. 1882 - d. 1951)
                             (Tsai-feng, Prince Ch'un)
 2 Dec 1908 - 12 Feb 1912  Puyi (P'u-i) (1st time)            (b. 1906 - d. 1967)
                             miaohao: none bestowed/ shi: none bestowed
                             nianhao 22 Jan 1909 - 12 Feb 1912: Xuantong (Hsüan-t'ung)
                            (only inside the Forbidden city¹ 13 Feb 1912 - 5 Nov 1924)
 6 Dec 1911 - 12 Feb 1912  Empress Dowager Longyu (Lung-yü)(f)(b. 1868 - d. 1913)
                             (holder of the Imperial seal) 
 1 Jul 1917 - 12 Jul 1917  Puyi (P'u-i) (2nd time)            (s.a.)
                             miaohao: none bestowed/ shi: none bestowed
                             nianhao 1 Jul - 12 Jul 1917: Xuantong (Hsüan-t'ung)

Prime Ministers of the Cabinet (Neige zongli dachen/Nei-ko tsung-li ta-ch'en)²
 9 May 1911 - 15 Nov 1911  Yikuang, Prince Qing               (b. 1838 - d. 1917)  Non-party
                             (I-k'uang, Prince Ch'ing)
                             (appointed 8 May 1911)
16 Nov 1911 - 12 Feb 1912  Yuan Shikai (Yüan Shih-k'ai)       (b. 1859 - d. 1916)  Mil
                             (appointed 1 Nov 1911, re-appointed 9 Nov 1911)
 1 Jul 1917 - 12 Jul 1917  Post abolished

  ¹According to the treaty signed between the Qing (Ch'ing) court and government of the Republic of China, Puyi (P'u-i)(s.a.) retained the title Emperor, received an annual payment from the Republic of China government, had the right to live in the Forbidden City, to be protected by imperial troops, to grant noble and honorary titles, and to maintain certain government organs in the Forbidden City (mainly for management of the Forbidden City and other palaces, management of imperial families, etc). Inside the Forbidden City the flag of the Qing dynasty was flown. People in the Forbidden City continued to wear the Qing official dress and used the Qing calendar system. On 1 Dec 1922, the Emperor married and his wife was called Empress. On 5 Nov 1924, Puyi was forced to leave the Forbidden City by Feng Yuxiang's (Feng Yü-hsiang)(b. 1882 - d. 1948) National Revolutionary Army of the Republic of China and all the noted privileges were terminated.

 ²During the Qing (Ch'ing) restoration 1 Jul 1917 - 12 Jul 1917, General Zhang Xun (Chang Hsün)(b. 1854 - d. 1923) exercised de facto rule, however he purposely avoided assuming any unique office revealing that he was the force behind the restoration. Additionally, the exclusion of any position equal to prime minister from the cabinet structure was intentional and was an attempt to emulate the pre-Revolutionary Qing government where such an office did not exist.

11 Jan 1851                Taiping tianguo (T'ai-p'ing t'ien-kuo)("Heavenly Realm
                             of Great Peace") inaugurated in Zhejiang, Jiangxi, and parts
                             of Anhui, Fujian, Hubei and Jiangsu.
19 Mar 1853                Taiping take Nanjing, which is renamed Tianjing (T'ien-ching)
                             ("Heavenly Capital").
19 Jul 1864                Tianjing is retaken by Qing (Ch'ing) forces.
25 Oct 1864                Extinguished by Qing empire with the capture of Hong Tianguifu.

Heavenly Kings of Great Peace (title Taiping Tian wang [T'ai-p'ing Tien-wang])
11 Jan 1851 -  1 Jun 1864  Hong Xiuquan (Hung Hsiu-ch'üan)    (b. 1814 - d. 1864)
 1 Jun 1864 - 25 Oct 1864  Hong Tianguifu (Hung T'ien-kuei-fu)(b. 1849 - d. 1864)

 9 Oct 1854                Shengping tianguo (Sheng-p'ing t'ien-kuo)("Heavenly Realm of
                             Approaching Peace") inaugurated in Hunan.
24 Jul 1858                Extinguished by Qing (Ch'ing) empire.

Kings
 9 Oct 1854 - 24 Jul 1858  Hu Youlu (Hu Yu-lu) (to Oct 1855)  (d. 1855)
                             (styled Dingnan wang [Ting-nan wang])
                           + Zhu Hongying (Chu Hung-ying)     (d. 1874)
                             (styled Zhennan wang [Chen-nan wang])

27 Sep 1855                Dacheng Guo (Ta-ch'eng kuo)("Realm of Great Accomplishment")
                             inaugurated in Guangxi, with a capital at Xunzhou (Hsün-chou)
                             (modern Guiping) which is renamed Xiujing (Hsiu-ching)
                             ("Beautiful Capital").
21 Aug 1861                Extinguished by Qing empire with the fall of Xiujing.
12 May 1872                Last rebel army, under Li Wencai (d. 1872), is destroyed by
                             Qing (Ch'ing) forces in Qiandong, Guizhou.

Kings
27 Sep 1855 - 21 Aug 1861  Chen Kai (Ch'en K'ai)              (b. 1822 - d. 1861)
                             (styled Pingxun wang [P'ing-hsün wang]) 
                           + Li Wenmao (Li Wen-mao)(to 1858)  (d. 1858)
                             (styled Pingjing wang [P'ing-ching wang])
                           + Liang Peiyou (Liang P'ei-yu)     (d. 1875)
                             (styled Pingdong wang [P'ing-tung wang])
                           + Liang Dachang (Liang Ta-ch'ang)
                             (styled Dingbei wang [Ting-pei wang])

1856 - 26 Dec 1872         Pingnan guo (P'ing-nan kuo)("Pacified South State") is a major
                             Islamic rebellious polity in western Yunnan province, it
                             is also referred to as the "Panthay rebellion."
1874                       Qing (Ch'ing) army completes suppression the rebellion. 

Qa´id Jami al-Muslimin (Leader of the Community of Muslims)
(usually referred to in foreign sources as "Sultan")
1856 - 26 Dec 1872         Sulayman ibn `Abd ar-Rahman        (b. 1823 - d. 1872)
                             (= Du Wenxiu [Tu Wen-hsiu])

Map of China	Hear National Anthem "Zhong Guo Xiong Li Yu Zhou Jian" [Chung Kuo Hsiung Li Yü Chou Chien] (China Heroically Stands in the Universe) (23 May 1915- 1 Jul 1921 [Lyrics modified Dec 1915 - 5 Jun 1916])	Hear National Anthem "Qing Yun Ge"   [Ch'ing Yün Ke] (The Song to the Auspicious Cloud)  (28 Apr 1913-23 May 1915, and 1 Jul 1921-29 Dec 1928) ----------------------------------- Provisional Anthem "Wuzu Gonghe Ge" [Wu-tsu Kung-ho Ke] (Song of Five Races under  One Union) (12 Feb 1912-28 Apr 1913)	Provisional Constitution   (11 Mar 1912 - 1 May 1914, 29 Jun 1916 - 10 Oct 1923) --------------------------------- Organizational Outline of the Provisional Government (15 Dec 1911 - 11 Mar 1912)
Map of Warlord Control	Capital: Beijing [Peking] (2 Apr 1912-4 Jun 1928) (Nanjing [Nanking] 1 Jan 1912 - 2 Apr 1912; Wuchang [Wu-ch'ang] 20 Nov 1911 - 1 Jan 1912)	Currency: Yuan (CND) ----------------------------------- National Holiday: 10 Oct (1911)  Guoqing Jie [Kuo-ch'ing Chieh] (National Day)	Population: 485,598,900 (1925)

10 Oct 1911                Revolution ("Wuchang Uprising") begins against the Qing (Ch'ing)
                             imperial government (a military government claiming to represent
                             the Republic of China is created in Wuchang, Hubei) starting the
                             "Xinhai Revolution" (other provincial military governments
                             supporting a republican form of government were also set up on
                             and after 22 Oct 1911: Anhui, Fengtian, Fujian, Guangdong,
                             Guangxi, Guizhou, Hunan, Jiangsu [at Zhenjiang and Jiujiang],
                             Nanchang in Jiangxi, Shaanxi, Shandong, Shanghai, Shanxi, Sichuan
                             [at Chengdu and Chongqing], Yunnan, and Zhejiang [see under China
                             Provinces]).
20 Nov 1911                Military Government of Hubei province is recognized as the Central
                             Military Government of China (Zhongyang jun zhengfu [Chung-yang
                             chün cheng-fu]) and the Chief Supervisor of the Hubei Army, Li
                             Yuanhong (Li Yüan-hung), was authorized to perform some executive
                             functions by resolutions of the United Assembly of Representatives
                             of the Provincial Military Governments on 20 Nov 1911 in Shanghai
                             and 30 Nov 1911 in Wuchang (Wu-ch'ang).
 3 Dec 1911                Republic of China (Zhonghua minguo [Chung-hua min-kuo]) established
                             by "Organizational Outline of the Provisional Government of the
                             Republic of China" adopted by the United Assembly of
                             Representatives of the Provincial Military Governments in
                             Wuchang. Pending the election of a Provisional President, the
                             office of Chief Supervisor of the Hubei Army was again recognized
                             [4 Dec 1911] as the Central Military Government with authority to
                             represent the provincial military governments by the United
                             Assembly.
15 Dec 1911                United Assembly (meeting in Nanjing) amends the "Organizational
                             Outline of the Provisional Government" to authorize the Grand
                             Marshal to exercise the functions of the Provisional President of
                             the Republic, pending elections. Li Yuanhong (Li Yüan-hung) is
                             elected Grand Marshal by the United Assembly on 17 Dec 1911 (he
                             takes office on 27 Dec 1911).
12 Dec 1915 - 22 Mar 1916  President Yuan Shikai (Yüan Shih-k'ai) accepted imperial dignity by
                             a presidential order, but cancelled all preparations 22 Mar 1916.
 1 Jul 1917 - 12 Jul 1917  Brief restoration of the Great Qing Empire (see above).
10 Sep 1917                Nationalist Military Government of the Republic of China founded
                             in Southern China at Guangzhou [Canton](see below).
 3 Jun 1928                "Warlord" era Beijing government collapses with the departure of
                             Zhang Zuolin (Chang Tso-lin)(who dies on 4 Jun 1928) and his
                             Prime minister from Beijing ahead of advancing Nationalist
                             Northern Army forces. The Nationalist government in Nanjing
                             continues as the sole government of the Republic of China.

Chief Supervisor of the Hubei Army of the Military Government of the Province of Hubei, recognized as the Central Military Government (in Wuchang)
[authorized to perform some executive functions]
11 Oct 1911 - 27 Dec 1911  Li Yuanhong (Li Yüan-hung)         (b. 1864 - d. 1928)  Mil
Grand Marshal (in Wuchang)
27 Dec 1911 -  1 Jan 1912  Li Yuanhong (Li Yüan-hung)         (s.a.)               Mil
                             (continued as grand marshal to 15 Feb 1912) 
27 Dec 1911 -  1 Jan 1912  Huang Xing (Huang Hsing)           (b. 1874 - d. 1916)  Mil/TMH
                             (vice marshal acting for Li in Nanjing)
Provisional President (in Nanjing)
 1 Jan 1912 - 10 Mar 1912  Sun Wen (Sun Wen) "Sun Yat-sen"    (b. 1866 - d. 1925)  TMH
                             (= Sun Yixian [Sun I-hsien])
                             (handed over seals of office 1 Apr 1912)
Plenipotentiary for Organizing a Provisional Republican Government¹ (in Beijing)
13 Feb 1912 - 15 Feb 1912  Yuan Shikai (Yüan Shih-k'ai)       (s.a.)               Mil
                             (in opposition to Sun)
Provisional President (in Beijing)
15 Feb 1912 - 10 Oct 1913  Yuan Shikai (Yüan Shih-k'ai)       (s.a.)               Mil/Beiyang
                             (1st time)
President
10 Oct 1913 - 12 Dec 1915  Yuan Shikai (Yüan Shih-k'ai)       (s.a.)               Mil/Beiyang
Emperor-elect²
12 Dec 1915 - 22 Mar 1916  Yuan Shikai (Yüan Shih-k'ai)       (s.a.)
                             nianhao 1 Jan 1916 - 23 Mar 1916: Hongxian (Hung-hsien)
                           (this acceptance of imperial dignity by Yuan
                            was not formally consummated by an enthronement)
Presidents
22 Mar 1916 -  6 Jun 1916  Yuan Shikai (2nd time)             (s.a.)               Mil/Beiyang
 6 Jun 1916 -  6 Jul 1917  Li Yuanhong (Li Yüan-hung)         (s.a.)               Mil/Prog
                            (prevented from exercising functions on 1 Jul 1917 [restoration
                            of monarchy], moved to Japanese legation Beijing 2 Jul 1917,
                            resumed functions, instructing Feng Guozhang to take over)
                             (1st time)
 6 Jul 1917 - 10 Oct 1918  Feng Guozhang (Feng Kuo-chang)     (b. 1859 - d. 1919)  Mil/Zhili
                             (in Nanjing 6 Jul 1917, arrived in Beijing on 1 Aug 1917)
10 Oct 1918 -  2 Jun 1922  Xu Shichang (Hsü Shih-ch'ang)      (b. 1855 - d. 1939)  Anhui
 2 Jun 1922 - 11 Jun 1922  Zhou Ziqi (Chao Tzu-ch'i)(acting)  (b. 1871 - d. 1923)  Comm  
11 Jun 1922 - 13 Jun 1923  Li Yuanhong (2nd time)             (s.a.)               Mil/Res
                             (left Beijing 13 Jun 1923, moving to Tianjin then
                             Shanghai; maintained he never resigned office)
13 Jun 1923 - 10 Oct 1923  State Council (acting)
                           - Gao Lingwei (Kao Ling-wei)       (b. 1868 - d. 1943)  Anhui
                             (principal signatory to 23 Jul 1923)
                           - Gu Weijun (Ku Wei-chün)          (b. 1887 - d. 1985)  Non-party
                             ("V.K. Wellington Koo")
                             (principal signatory from 23 Jul 1923)
10 Oct 1923 -  2 Nov 1924  Cao Kun (Ts'ao K'un)               (b. 1862 - d. 1938)  Mil/Zhili
 2 Nov 1924 - 24 Nov 1924  Huang Fu (Huang Fu)(acting)        (b. 1880 - d. 1936)  Zhili
Provisional Chief Executive
24 Nov 1924 - 20 Apr 1926  Duan Qirui (Tuan Ch'i-jui)         (b. 1865 - d. 1936)  Mil/Anhui
                            (prevented from exercising office and in
                             refuge in Beijing Legation Quarter 10 - 15 Apr 1926)
Presidents
20 Apr 1926 - 13 May 1926  Vacant
20 Apr 1926 - 13 May 1926  Hu Weide (Hu Wei-te)(acting)       (b. 1863 - d. 1933)  Non-party
                            (declined to serve as head of government,
                             continued as foreign minister)
13 May 1926 - 23 Jun 1926  Yan Huiqing "W.W. Yen" (acting)    (b. 1877 - d. 1950)  Zhili
                             (Yen Hui-ch'ing)
23 Jun 1926 -  5 Oct 1926  Du Xigui (Tu Hsi-kuei) (acting)    (b. 1875 - d. 1933)  Mil/Zhili
 5 Oct 1926 - 18 Jun 1927  Gu Weijun "V.K. Wellington Koo"    (s.a.)               Non-party
                             (Ku Wei-chün) (acting)
Grand Marshal of the Army and Navy
18 Jun 1927 -  3 Jun 1928  Zhang Zuolin (Chang Tso-lin)       (b. 1873 - d. 1928) Mil/Feng
                           (left Beijing 3 Jun 1928, dies 4 Jun 1928 en-route to Shenyang)

Prime ministers
13 Mar 1912 - 29 Jun 1912  Tang Shaoyi (T'ang Shao-i)         (b. 1862 - d. 1938)  Beiyang
                             (1st time)
17 Jun 1912 - 25 Sep 1912  Lu Zhengxiang (Lu Cheng-hsiang)    (b. 1870 - d. 1949)  Non-party
                             (= Pierre-Célestin Lou)
                             (acting [for Tang] to 29 Jun 1912)
20 Aug 1912 - 16 Jul 1913  Zhao Bingjun (Chao Ping-chün)      (b. 1859 - d. 1914)  Beiyang
                             (acting [for Lu] to 25 Sep 1912)
 2 May 1913 - 26 Aug 1913  Duan Qirui(Tuan Ch'i-jui)          (s.a.)               Mil/Beiyang
                             (acting [for Zhao to 16 Jul 1913])
                             (1st time)
17 Jul 1913 - 19 Jul 1913  Zhu Qiqian (Chu Ch'i-chien)(acting)(b. 1871 - d. 1964)  Non-party
                             (appointed, but did not take office)
26 Aug 1913 - 14 Feb 1914  Xiong Xiling (Hsiung Hsi-ling)     (b. 1870 - d. 1941)  Beiyang
14 Feb 1914 -  2 May 1914  Sun Baoqi (Sun Pao-ch'i) (acting)  (s.a.)               Beiyang
Secretaries of State
 2 May 1914 - 22 Dec 1915  Xu Shichang (Chu Ch'i-chien)       (s.a.)               Beiyang 
                             (1st time)
28 Oct 1915 - 22 Mar 1916  Lu Zhengxiang (Lu Cheng-hsiang)    (s.a.)               Non-party
                             (acting for Xu to 22 Dec 1915)
22 Mar 1916 - 23 Apr 1916  Xu Shichang (2nd time)             (s.a.)               Beiyang
23 Apr 1916 - 30 Jun 1916  Duan Qirui (Tuan Ch'i-jui)         (s.a.)               Mil/Beiyang
Prime ministers
30 Jun 1916 - 24 May 1917  Duan Qirui (Tuan Ch'i-jui)         (s.a.)               Mil/Prog
                             (2nd time)
24 May 1917 - 13 Jun 1917  Wu Tingfang (Wu T'ing-fang)        (b. 1842 - d. 1922)  Prog
                             (acting)
13 Jun 1917 - 24 Jun 1917  Jiang Zhaozong (Chiang Chao-tsung) (b. 1861 - d. 1943)  Mil  
                             (acting)
24 Jun 1917 -  5 Jul 1917  Li Jingxi (Li Ching-hsi)(1st time) (b. 1857 - d. 1925)  Prog
 5 Jul 1917 - 23 Nov 1917  Duan Qirui (3rd time)              (s.a.)               Mil/Anhui
                             (appointed 2 Jul 1917, arrived in Beijing 14 Jul 1917)
23 Nov 1917 -  2 Dec 1917  Wang Daxie (Wang Ta-hsieh)         (b. 1859 - d. 1929)  Zhili
                             (1st time) (acting)
 2 Dec 1917 - 24 Mar 1918  Weng Shizhen (Weng Shih-chen)      (b. 1861 - d. 1930)  Anhui
                             (acting)
21 Feb 1918 - 24 Mar 1918  Qiang Nengxun (Ch'iang Neng-hsün)  (b. 1869 - d. 1924)  Anhui
                             (1st time) (acting for Weng)
24 Mar 1918 - 11 Oct 1918  Duan Qirui (4th time)              (s.a.)               Mil/Anhui
11 Oct 1918 - 14 Jun 1919  Qiang Nengxun (2nd time)           (s.a.)               Anhui
                             (acting to 21 Dec 1918)
14 Jun 1919 - 25 Sep 1919  Gong Xinzhan (Kung Hsin-chan)      (b. 1871 - d. 1943)  Anhui
                             (acting)
25 Sep 1919 -  2 Jul 1920  Jin Yunpeng (Chin Yün-p'eng)       (b. 1877 - d. 1925)  Mil/Anhui 
                             (1st time)(acting to 5 Nov 1919)
14 May 1920 - 10 Aug 1920  Sa Zhenbing (Sa Chen-ping)         (b. 1859 - d. 1952)  Mil/Anhui
                             (acting [for Yunpeng to 2 Jul 1920])
10 Aug 1920 - 19 Dec 1921  Jin Yunpeng (2nd time)             (s.a.)               Mil/Anhui
                             (acting to 14 May 1921)
19 Dec 1921 - 25 Dec 1921  Yan Huiqing "W.W. Yen" (1st time)  (s.a.)               Zhili
                             (Yen Hui-ch'ing) (acting)
25 Dec 1921 -  5 May 1922  Liang Shiyi (Liang Shih-i)         (b. 1869 - d. 1933)  Comm
27 Jan 1922 - 11 Apr 1922  Yan Huiqing "W.W. Yen" (2nd time)  (s.a.)               Zhili
                             (acting for Liang)
11 Apr 1922 - 12 Jun 1922  Zhou Ziqi (Chao Tzu-ch'i)          (s.a.)               Anhui
                             (acting [for Liang to 5 May 1922])
12 Jun 1922 -  8 Aug 1922  Yan Huiqing "W.W. Yen" (3rd time)  (s.a.)               Zhili
                             (acting)
 5 Aug 1922 - 19 Sep 1922  Tang Shaoyi(T'ang Shao-i)(2nd time)(s.a.)               Non-party 
                             (appointed, but did not take office)
 8 Aug 1922 - 30 Nov 1922  Wang Chonghui (Wang Ch'ung-hui)    (b. 1881 - d. 1958)  Zhili
                             (acting [for Tang to 19 Sep 1922])
30 Nov 1922 - 14 Dec 1922  Wang Daxie (2nd time) (acting)     (s.a.)               Zhili
14 Dec 1922 -  5 Jan 1923  Wang Zhengting "C.T. Wang"         (b. 1882 - d. 1961)  Non-party
                             (Wang Cheng-t'ing) (acting)
 5 Jan 1923 - 15 Jan 1924³ Zhang Shaozeng (Chang Shao-tseng)  (b. 1879 - d. 1928)  Mil/Beiyang
13 Jun 1923 -  9 Sep 1923  Li Genyuan (Li Ken-yuan)           (b. 1879 - d. 1965)  Anhui
                             (in dissidence in Tianjin, appointed by Li Yuanhong)
12 Oct 1923 - 15 Jan 1924  Gao Lingwei (Kao Ling-wei)         (s.a.)               Anhui
                             (acting for Zhang)
15 Jan 1924 -  4 Jul 1924  Sun Baoqi (Sun Pao-ch'i)           (s.a.)               Beiyang 
 4 Jul 1924 - 16 Sep 1924  Gu Weijun "V.K. Wellington Koo"    (s.a.)               Non-party
                             (Ku Wei-chün) (1st time) (acting)
16 Sep 1924 -  1 Nov 1924  Yan Huiqing "W.W. Yen" (4th time)  (s.a.)               Zhili
 1 Nov 1924 - 24 Nov 1924  Huang Fu (Huang Fu) (acting)       (s.a.)               Zhili
24 Nov 1924 - 28 Dec 1925  Post abolished
28 Dec 1925 -  6 Mar 1926  Xu Shiying (Hsü Shih-ying)         (b. 1873 - d. 1964)  Anhui
19 Feb 1926 - 20 Apr 1926  Jia Deyao (Chia Te-yao)            (b. 1880 - d. 1940)  Mil/Anhui
                             (acting for Xu to 6 Mar 1926)
20 Apr 1926 - 13 May 1926  Hu Weide (Hu Wei-te)               (s.a.)               Non-party
                            (declined to serve as head of government,
                             continued as foreign minister)
20 Apr 1926 - 13 May 1926  Vacant
13 May 1926 - 23 Jun 1926  Yan Huiqing "W.W. Yen" (5th time)  (s.a.)               Zhili
                             (acting)  
23 Jun 1926 -  5 Oct 1926  Du Xigui (Tu Hsi-kuei)(acting)     (s.a.)               Mil/Zhili  
 5 Oct 1926 - 20 Jun 1927  Gu Weijun (2nd time)(acting)       (s.a.)               Non-party
20 Jun 1927 -  3 Jun 1928  Pan Fu (P'an Fu)                   (b. 1883 - d. 1936)  Feng
                            (from 3 Jun 1928 in Tianjin, left for Dairen 10 Jun 1928)

Military Government of the Army Protecting the Nation 1916:

Note: Military government uniting four provinces (Guangdong, Guangxi, Yunnan, and Guizhou), in opposition to Yuan Shikai (s.a.), proclaiming Li Yuanhong (s.a.) President of China and nominally acting in his name from Zhaoqing (Chao-ch'ing) in Guangdong.

Leaders of the Civil Governors composing the Military Affairs Yuan
 8 May 1916 - 14 Jul 1916  Tang Jiyao (T'ang Chi-yao)         (s.a.)               Mil
                             (elected but did not take office, remained in Yunnan)
 8 May 1916 - 14 Jul 1916  Cen Chunxuan (Ts'en Ch'un-hsüan)   (b. 1861 - d. 1933)  Mil
                             (deputy leader, acting for Tang)

Head of the Government Affairs Committee Leading the Civil Governors
 8 May 1916 - 14 Jul 1916  Liang Qichao (Liang Ch'i-ch'ao)    (b. 1873 - d. 1929)  Prog

 ¹An imperial edict proclaiming the abdication of the Emperor (on 12 Feb 1912) also gave Yuan Shikai (Yüan Shih-k'ai)(s.a.) full authority to organize a provisional republican government. He assumed the office by issuing a notice on 13 Feb 1912. After his election as Provisional President at the session of the Senate held in Nanjing 15 Feb 1912, he also began to exercise the function of this office before his formal inauguration which took place in Beijing on 10 Mar 1912.

 ²Yuan Shikai (s.a.) accepted a proposal to become the emperor by a presidential order dated 12 Dec 1915, and initiated preparations for enthronement; introduced an imperial era (Hongxian) by an order dated 31 Dec 1915; cancelled all preparations on 22 Mar 1916.

 ³Prime minister Zhang Shaozeng (Chang Shao-tseng)(s.a.) was discharged by presidential order of 13 Jun 1923. The presidential order was proclaimed null and void on 17 Jun 1923 by the Cabinet acting on resolutions of the House of Representatives and Senate.

Party/Faction abbreviations: Anhui = Wan xijunfa/Wan hsi-chün-fa (Anhui Clique, 1916-1920, split from Beiyang); Anfu = Anfu julebu/An-fu chü-le-pu (Anfu Club, literally 'Peace and Happiness Club', political wing of the Anhui clique, 7 Mar 1918-1920, split from Beiyang clique); Beiyang = Beiyang xijunfa/Pei-yang hsi-chün-fa (Beiyang Clique, supported Beiyang army, conservative, 1911-1928); Comm = Jiaotong xijunfa/Chiao-t'ung hsi-chün-fa (Communications Clique, powerful interest group of politicians, bureaucrats, technocrats, businessmen, engineers, and labor unionists in Beiyang government 1912-1928, also called Cantonese Clique); Feng = Feng xijunfa/Feng hsi-chün-fa (Fengtian Clique, 1919-1928, split from Beiyang led by Zhang Zuolin); KMT = Zhongguo Guomindang/Chung-kuo Kuo-min-tang (National Party of China, "Kuomintang", nationalist, republican, conservative, anti-Communist, 1 Jun 1931 - 28 Sep 1986 state party, est.23 Aug 1912-Nov 1913, re-formed.10 Oct 1919); Prog = Jinbu dang/Chin-pu Tang (Progressive Party, center-right, 1913-1916); Res = Yanjiu Jituan xijunfa/Yen-chiu Chi-t'uan hsi-chün-fa (Constitution Research Clique, split from Prog, 1918-1924); TMH = Zhongguo Tongmenghui/Chung-kuo T'ung-meng Hui (Chinese Common League, 1905-Aug 1912, merged into KMT); Zhili = Zhili xijunfa/Chih-li hsi-chün-fa (Zhili Clique, 1916-1926, clique's base of power Zhili province, split from Beiyang Clique); Mil = Military

Note: The name of the polity is still Republic of China, which declares itself the legal successor to the preceding polity of that name, it has a different flag (from 1921) and government, and eventually a different capital, Nanjing (Beijing is in fact deprived of the name-part jing, meaning capital, and is renamed Beiping after the demise of the "warlord" regime). During the Sino-Japanese war the capital is moved first to Hankou (17-21 Nov 1937), then to Chongqing (21 Nov 1937 - 5 May 1946). On 8 Dec 1949, the government moves to Taiwan. Coverage of the Republic of China from that point continues under Taiwan.
 

10 Sep 1917 - 5 May 1921

Adopted 5 May 1921

Map of China	Hear National Anthem "Zhonghua Minguo guoge" [Chung-hua ming-kuo kuo-ke] (National Anthem of the Republic of China) unofficially "Sanmin Zhuyi" [San Min Chu-i] (Three Principles of  the People)	Text of National Anthem Adopted 16 Jun 1937 (proposed 24 Mar 1930)	Constitution (25 Dec 1947) -------------------------------- Provisional Constitution of the Political Tutelage Period (1 Jun 1931 -  25 Dec 1947) ---------------------------------   Organic Law   (4 Oct 1928 - 1 Jun 1931) -------------------------------- Organic Law of the Military Government (30 Aug 1917 - 7 Apr 1921)
Capital: Nanjing [Nanking] (18 Apr 1927-17 Nov 1937 and 5 May 1946-23 Apr 1949) (Guangzhou [Canton]  10 Sep 1917-20 Mar 1927; Hankou/Wuhan 20 Mar - 20 Sep 1927 and 17-21  Nov 1937; Chongqing [Chungking]  21 Nov 1937 - 5 May 1946 and 11 Oct - 28 Nov 1949; Chengdu 28 Nov - 8 Dec 1949)	Hear Provisional Anthem "Guomin Geming Ge" [Kuo-min ko-ming ke] (Revolution of the Citizens) (1 Jul 1926-16 Jun 1937)	Currency: Chinese Dollar/ Yuan (CND) ---------------------------------- National Holiday: Guoqing Jie [Kuo-ch'ing chieh] (National Day) 10 Oct (1911)	Population: 481,151,700 (1936)

10 Sep 1917                Nationalist Military Government of the Republic of China in
                             Southern China formed at Guangzhou [Canton].
21 May 1918                Sun Wen publishes a notice on termination of functions of the Grand
                             Marshal on his departure from Guangdong (following his
                             resignation from the office of the Grand Marshal dated 4 May 1918
                             submitted to the extraordinary session of the Congress on
                             7 May 1918, pending the acceptance which was never voted).
 6 Aug 1918                House of Representatives of the National Assembly re-convenes in
                             Guangzhou follow being forcibly dissolved in Beijing, followed by
                             the Senate on 7 Aug 1918.
29 Nov 1920                Restoration of the Military Government proclaimed at Guangzhou  
                             (following its dissolution on 24 Oct 1920).
21 Feb 1923                Military Government restored at Guangzhou (following its collapse
                             on 9 Aug 1922 after the coup of 16 Jun 1922).
18 Apr 1927 - 20 Sep 1927  Members of the National Government present in Nanjing constitute a
                             de facto rival government (opposed to the government in Wuhan
                             [Hankou]).
 1 Aug 1927 - 22 Sep 1937  Civil war begins between Nationalist and Communist forces.
 1 Jul 1925                Establishment of a national government in Nanjing (Nan-ching)
                             [Nanking](followed by a flight to Wuhan/Hankou on 1 Jul 1925 and
                             subsequent reconciliation in Nanjing on 20 Sep 1927).
 3 Jun 1928                Collapse of the "Warlord" era Beijing government with the departure
                             of Zhang Zuolin from Beijing. On 15 Jun 1928, the Nationalist
                             government issues a national unification declaration to foreign
                             diplomats ("formal declaration on the subject of foreign
                             policy").
18 Sep 1931                Japanese invasion and occupation of Northeastern China begins
                             (Heilongjiang, Jilin, and Liaoning [Fengtian] provinces)(see
                             under Manchuria)
 7 Nov 1931 - 22 Sep 1937  Chinese Soviet Republic in rebellion against Republic of China
                             (see below).
Aug 1937 - Sep 1945        Japanese occupation of Northeastern China, the Yellow River
                             valley and most of the coastal provinces. The capital is moved to
                             first to Wuhan/Hankou (17-21 Nov 1937), then to Chongqing (21 Nov
                             1937 - 5 May 1946).
20 Jul 1946 -  8 Dec 1949  Renewed civil war between Nationalist and Communist forces.
 8 Dec 1949                Republic of China government moves to Taibei (T'ai-pei), Taiwan.

Grand Marshal of the Navy and Army (at Guangzhou)
10 Sep 1917 - 21 May 1918  Sun Wen (Sun Wen) "Sun Yat-sen"    (b. 1866 - d. 1925)  CMT/Mil
                            (= Sun Yixian [Sun I-hsien])          
                            (resignation of 4 May 1918 not formally accepted;
                            published a notice on termination of functions on
                            departure from Guangdong on 21 May 1918)
21 May 1918 -  5 Jul 1918  Vacant
Military Government of the Republic of China (at Guangzhou)
 5 Jul 1918 - 21 Aug 1918  Directors-General of Government Affairs          
                           - Tang Jiyao (T'ang Chi-yao)       (b. 1883 - d. 1927)  Mil
                           - Wu Tingfang (Wu T'ing-fang)      (b. 1842 - d. 1922)  CMT
                           - Lin Baoyi (Lin Pao-i)            (b. 1863 - d. 1927)  Mil
                           - Lu Rongting (Lu Jung-t'ing)      (b. 1859 - d. 1928)  Mil
                           - Cen Chunxuan (Ts'en Ch'un-hsüan) (b. 1861 - d. 1933)  Mil     
21 Aug 1918 - 24 Oct 1920  Cen Chunxuan (Ts'en Ch'un-hsüan)   (s.a.)               Mil
                            (presiding director-general of Government Affairs)
24 Oct 1920 - 29 Nov 1920  Vacant
29 Nov 1920 -  5 May 1921  Directors-General of Government Affairs  
                           - Tang Shaoyi                      (b. 1862 - d. 1938)  Mil
                           - Sun Wen "Sun Yat-sen"            (s.a.)               KMT
                           - Wu Tingfang                      (s.a.)               KMT
                           - Tang Jiyao (absent to 2 Apr 1921)(s.a.)               Mil/KMT
President (and Grand Marshal of the Army and Navy)
(colloquially styled "Extraordinary President")
 5 May 1921 -  9 Aug 1922  Sun Wen "Sun Yat-sen"              (s.a.)               KMT
                            (forced to depart Guangdong 9 Aug 1922, did not resign)
 9 Aug 1922 - 21 Feb 1923  Vacant
Grand Marshal of the Army and Navy
21 Feb 1923 - 12 Mar 1925  Sun Wen "Sun Yat-sen"              (s.a.)               KMT
Chief Counselor of the Headquarters acting as Grand Marshal, Governor of Guangdong
12 Mar 1925 -  1 Jul 1925  Hu Hanmin                          (s.a.)               KMT
                            (acting for absent Sun 13 Nov 1924 - 12 Mar 1925)
Chairman of the Meetings of the Committee of the National Government
 1 Jul 1925 -  2 Jul 1925  National Government (at Guangzhou)
                           - Wang Zhaoming "Wang Jingwei"     (b. 1883 - d. 1944)  KMT
                             (Wang Chao-ming "Wang Ching-wei")
                           - Hu Hanmin (Hu Han-min)           (s.a.)               KMT
                           - Tan Yankai (T'an Yen-k'ai)       (b. 1880 - d. 1930)  Mil/KMT
                           - Xu Chongzhi (Hsu Ch'ung-chi)     (b. 1887 - d. 1965)  Mil/KMT
                           - Lin Sen (Lin Sen)                (b. 1867 - d. 1943)  KMT
                           - Liao Zhongkai (Liao Chung-k'ai)  (b. 1877 - d. 1925)  KMT
                           - Wu Chaoshu "CC Wu" (Wu Ch'ao-shu)(b. 1887 - d. 1934)  KMT
                           - Gu Yingfen (Ku Ying-fen)         (b. 1873 - d. 1931)  KMT
                           - Zhu Peide (Chu P'ei-teh)         (b. 1889 - d. 1937)  Mil/KMT
                           - Sun Ke "Sun Fo" (Sun K'o)        (b. 1891 - d. 1973)  KMT
                           - Cheng Qian (Ch'eng Ch'ien)       (b. 1882 - d. 1968)  Mil/KMT
 2 Jul 1925 - 20 Mar 1927  Wang Zhaoming "Wang Jingwei"       (s.a.)               KMT
                             (Wang Chao-ming "Wang Ching-wei")
                             (in Guangzhou; absent 11 May 1926 - 10 Apr 1927)
 2 Jul 1925 - 20 Sep 1927  Standing Committee of the National
                           Government (at Wuhan [Hankou])
                           - Wang Zhaoming "Wang Ching-wei"   (s.a.)               KMT
                              (absent to 1 Apr 1927, arrived Hankou 10 Apr 1927)
                           - Hu Hanmin⁴                       (s.a.)               KMT
                              (to 22 Sep 1925 and from 5/6 Feb 1926)     
                           - Tan Yankai (T'an Yen-k'ai)       (s.a.)               Mil/KMT
                           - Xu Chongzhi (Hsu Ch'ung-chi)     (s.a.)               Mil/KMT
                              (to 22 Sep 1925
                           - Lin Sen (Lin Sen)                (s.a.)               KMT
                              (to 5/6 Feb 1926)
                           - Wu Chaoshu⁴ "CC Wu"              (s.a.)               KMT
                              (22 Sep 1925 - 20 Mar 1927)
                           - Gu Yingfen⁴ (Ku Ying-fen)        (s.a.)               KMT
                              (22 Sep 1925 - 20 Mar 1927)
                           - Zhang Renjie⁴ (Chang Jen-chieh)  (b. 1877 - d. 1950)  KMT
                              (2 Jun 1926 - 20 Mar 1927)
                           - Song Ziwen "T.V. Soong"          (b. 1894 - d. 1971)  KMT
                              (Sung Tzu-wen)(from 2 Jun 1926)
                           - Sun Ke "Sun Fo" (Sun K'o)        (s.a.)               KMT
                              (from 20 Mar 1927)
                           - Xu Qian "George Hsu" (Hsu Ch'ien)(b. 1871 - d. 1940)  KMT
                              (from 20 Mar 1927)
18 Apr 1927 -  7 Feb 1928  Standing Committee of the National
                           Government (at Nanjing; in opposition to 20 Sep 1927)
                           - Hu Hanmin (to 20 Sep 1927)       (s.a.)               KMT
                              (presided at most meetings 30 Apr - 10 Aug 1927)
                           - Gu Yingfen (Ku Ying-fen)         (s.a.)               KMT
                              (to 20 Sep 1927)
                           - Wu Chaoshu "CC Wu" (Wu Ch'ao-shu)(s.a.)               KMT
                              (to 20 Sep 1927)
                           - Zhang Renjie (Chang Jen-chieh)   (s.a.)               KMT
                              (to 20 Sep 1927)
                           - Cai Yuanpei (Ts'ai Yuan-p'ei)    (b. 1868 - d. 1940)  KMT
                              (from 20 Sep 1927)
                           - Tan Yankai (from 20 Sep 1927)    (s.a.)               Mil/KMT
                              (presided at most meetings from 20 Sep 1927)
                           - Li Liejun (Li Lie-chün)          (b. 1882 - d. 1946)  KMT
                              (from 20 Sep 1927)
                           - Jiang Zhongzheng                 (b. 1887 - d. 1975)  KMT/Mil
                              (Chiang Chung-cheng) "Chiang Kai-shek"
                              (from 3 Jan 1928)
Presidents of the National Government
 7 Feb 1928 - 10 Oct 1928  Tan Yankai                         (s.a.)               KMT
10 Oct 1928 - 15 Dec 1931  Jiang Zhongzheng "Chiang Kai-shek" (s.a.)               KMT/Mil
                             (Chiang Chung-cheng) (1st time)
15 Dec 1931 -  1 Aug 1943  Lin Sen (Lin Sen)                  (s.a.)               KMT
                             (acting to 1 Jan 1932)
 1 Aug 1943 - 20 May 1948  Jiang Zhongzheng "Chiang Kai-shek" (s.a.)               KMT/Mil
                             (2nd time)(acting to 10 Oct 1943) 
Presidents
20 May 1948 -  8 Dec 1949  Jiang Zhongzheng "Chiang Kai-shek" (s.a.)               KMT/Mil
                             (declared retirement 21 Jan 1949, resumed office
                             1 Mar 1950)(continues to 5 Apr 1975 on Taiwan)
21 Jan 1949 -  8 Dec 1949  Li Zongren (Li Tsung-jen)          (b. 1890 - d. 1969)  KMT
                             (acting [for absent Chiang], left country 20 Nov 1949)
                             (continues to 1 Mar 1950 on Taiwan)

Heads of the Executive Yuan (Prime ministers)
25 Oct 1928 - 22 Sep 1930  Tan Yankai (T'an Yen-k'ai)         (s.a.)               KMT
22 Sep 1930 - 24 Nov 1930  Song Ziwen "T.V. Soong" (1st time) (s.a.)               KMT
                             (Sung Tzu-wen) (acting) 
24 Nov 1930 - 15 Dec 1931  Jiang Zhongzheng "Chiang Kai-shek" (s.a.)               Mil/KMT
                             (Chiang Chung-cheng) (1st time)
15 Dec 1931 -  1 Jan 1932  Chen Mingshu (Ch'en Ming-shu)      (b. 1890 - d. 1965)  KMT
                             (acting) 
 1 Jan 1932 - 29 Jan 1932  Sun Ke "Sun Fo" (Sun K'o)(1st time)(s.a.)               KMT
29 Jan 1932 - 16 Dec 1935  Wang Zhaoming "Wang Jingwei"       (s.a.)               KMT
                             (Wang Chao-ming "Wang Ching-wei")
 4 Sep 1932 - 30 Mar 1933  Song Ziwen (acting for Wang)       (s.a.)               KMT
20 Jul 1935 - 23 Aug 1935  Kong Xiangxi "H.H. Kung"           (b. 1880 - d. 1967)  KMT
                             (Kung Hsiang-hsi)(acting for Wang)
 8 Nov 1935 - 16 Dec 1935  Kong Xiangxi "H.H. Kung"           (s.a.)               KMT
                             (acting for Wang)
16 Dec 1935 -  4 Jan 1938  Jiang Zhongzheng "Chiang Kai-shek" (s.a.)               Mil/KMT
                             (prisoner of Zhang Xueliang 12-26 Dec 1936)
                             (2nd time)
13 Dec 1936 - 28 Dec 1936  Kong Xiangxi "H.H. Kung"           (s.a.)               KMT
                             (Kung Hsiang-hsi)(acting for Jiang)
 6 Apr 1937 - 29 May 1937  Wang Chonghui (Wang Ch'ung-hui)    (b. 1881 - d. 1958)  KMT
                             (acting for Jiang)
 4 Jan 1938 - 11 Dec 1939  Kong Xiangxi "H.H. Kung"           (s.a.)               KMT
11 Dec 1939 - 25 Jun 1945  Jiang Zhongzheng "Chiang Kai-shek" (s.a.)               Mil/KMT
                             (3rd time)
 7 Dec 1944 - 25 Jun 1945  Song Ziwen (acting for Jiang)      (s.a.)               KMT
25 Jun 1945 -  1 Mar 1947  Song Ziwen (2nd time)              (s.a.)               KMT
27 Jun 1945 - 17 Jul 1945  Weng Wenhao "W.H. Wong"            (b. 1889 - d. 1971)  KMT
                             (Weng Wen-hao) (acting for Song)          
 5 Aug 1945 -  6 Oct 1945  Weng Wenhao (acting for Song)      (s.a.)               KMT
 1 Mar 1947 - 23 Apr 1947  Jiang Zhongzheng "Chiang Kai-shek" (s.a.)               Mil/KMT
                             (4th time) (acting)
23 Apr 1947 -  1 Jun 1948  Zhang Qun (Chang Ch'ün)            (b. 1889 - d. 1990)  Mil/KMT
 1 Jun 1948 - 23 Dec 1948  Weng Wenhao "W.H. Wong"            (s.a.)               KMT
23 Dec 1948 - 24 Mar 1949  Sun Ke "Sun Fo" (Sun K'o)(2nd time)(s.a.)               KMT
24 Mar 1949 - 13 Jun 1949  He Yingqin (Ho Ying-ch'in)         (b. 1889 - d. 1987)  Mil/KMT
13 Jun 1949 -  8 Dec 1949  Yan Xishan (Yen Hsi-shan)          (b. 1883 - d. 1960)  Mil/KMT
                             (continues to 15 Mar 1950 on Taiwan)

 ⁴Refused to recognize their replacement by the members elected on 11 Mar 1927 in Hankou (Wuhan) and constituted a de facto rival Standing Committee in Nanjing on 18 Apr 1927.

Party abbreviations: KMT = Zhongguo Guomindang/Chung-kuo Kuo-min-tang (National Party of China, "Kuomintang", nationalist, republican, conservative, anti-Communist, 1 Jun 1931 - 28 Sep 1986 state party, est.23 Aug 1912-Nov 1913, re-formed.10 Oct 1919); CMT = Zhongguo Gemindang /Chung-kuo Ko-min-tang (Chinese Revolutionary Party, formed by Sun Wen from KMT, 8 Jul 1914 - 10 Oct 1919, merged into KMT); Mil = Military

 9 Sep 1930                A rival National Government is inaugurated in Beijing (Pei-ching)
                             after its election by a dissident faction of the Central Party
                             Department of the KMT on 1 Sep 1930.
23 Sep 1930                Northeast Army (Manchurian) army enters Beijing.
27 Oct 1930                The dissident Central Party Department of the KMT, that created
                             the government, dissolves itself.
bf.4 Nov 1930              Government ceased to function after military defeat by the armed
                             forces of the (Nanjing-based) Republic of China.

President of the Committee of the National Government (at Beijing [Pei-ching])
 9 Sep 1930-bf.4 Nov 1930  Xishan (Yen Hsi-shan)              (b. 1883 - d. 1960)  Mil/KMT
                             (left Beijing 20 Sep 1930, continues
                             in Shanxi to bf.4 Nov 1930)

28 May 1931                National Government established at Guangzhou by KMT dissidents.
 5 Jan 1932                Guangzhou falls to forces of (Nanjing-based) Republic of China.

Standing Committee of the National Government (at Guangzhou [Kuang-chou])
28 May 1931 -  5 Jan 1932  Members [no chairman elected]
                           - Tang Shaoyi (T'ang Shao-i)       (b. 1862 - d. 1938)  KMT
                           - Wang Zhaoming "Wang Jingwei"     (b. 1883 - d. 1944)  KMT
                              (Wang Chao-ming "Wang Ching-wei")
                           - Gu Yingfen (Ku Ying-fen)         (b. 1873 - d. 1931)  KMT
                              (to 28 Oct 1931)
                           - Zou Lu (Tzou Lu)                 (b. 1885 - d. 1954)  KMT
                           - Sun Ke "Sun Fo" (Sun K'o)        (b. 1891 - d. 1973)  KMT
                           - Deng Zeru (Teng Tse-ju)          (b. 1869 - d. 1934)  KMT

20 Nov 1933                China is proclaimed a democratic republic by the Chinese People's
                             Provisional Congress in Fuzhou (Fu-chou)[Foochow] in Fujian
                             (Fu-chien)[Fukien] province.
22 Nov 1933                People's Revolutionary Government of the Republic of China
                             (Zhonghua gongheguo renmin geming zhengfu [Chung-hua kung-ho-kuo
                             jen-min ko-ming cheng-fu])[Republic of China = Zhonghua gongheguo
                             [Chung-hua kung-ho-kuo]) as opposed to Zhonghua minguo [Chung-hua
                             min-kuo]) established at Fuzhou by the Chinese People's
                             Provisional Congress.
13 Jan 1934                State collapses with the occupation of Fuzhou by forces of the
                             Republic of China.

President of the Committee of the People's Revolutionary Government (at Fuzhou [Fu-chou])
22 Nov 1933 - 13 Jan 1934  Li Jishen (Li Chi-shen)            (b. 1885 - d. 1959)  SRD
                             (fled Fuzhou 12 Jan 1934)

 7 Nov 1931                Soviet Republic of China (Zhonghua suweiai gongheguo [Chung-hua
                             su-wei-ai kung-ho-kuo])(sometimes called by historians the
                             "Chinese Soviet Republic" or the "Jiangxi Soviet Republic") is
                             established in Ruijin (Jui-chin) in Jiangxi (Chiang-shi)
                             province by the Congress of the Representatives of All National
                             Soviets of the Workers, Peasants and Soldiers of China
                             (in rebellion against the Republic of China).
 1 Dec 1931                Provisional Central Government of the Soviet Republic of China is
                             established.
16 Oct 1934                Ceased to exist de facto after the loss of its capital and
                             territory to the armed forces of the Republic of China.
16 Oct 1934 - 22 Oct 1935  Loss of capital, followed by the "Long March" to the North-west.
22 Sep 1937                Soviet Republic of China ceases to exist de jure following the
                             publication of the declaration of co-operation between the
                             Communist Party of China and the Nationalist Party of China.

General Secretaries of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China
Sep 1931 - 17 Jan 1935     Bo Gu (Po Ku)                      (b. 1907 - d. 1946) 
                             (acting to 15 Jan 1934) 
17 Jan 1935 - 22 Sep 1937  Zhang Wentian (Chang Wen-t'ien)    (b. 1899 - d. 1976)
                             (acting)(continues to 20 Mar 1943) 

Chairman of the Central Executive Committee of the Soviet Republic of China
 1 Dec 1931 - 22 Sep 1937  Mao Zedong (Mao Tse-tung)          (b. 1893 - d. 1976)  CPC
                             (elected 21 Nov 1931)

Chairmen of the People's Committee of the Soviet Republic of China
 1 Dec 1931 -  3 Feb 1934  Mao Zedong (Mao Tse-tung)          (s.a.)               CPC
 3 Feb 1934 - 16 Oct 1934  Zhang Wentian (Chang Wen-t'ien)    (s.a.)               CPC

Party abbreviations: CPC = Zhongguo Gongchandang/Chung-kuo Kung-ch'an-tang (Communist Party of China, communist, authoritarian, Chinese nationalist, Marxist-Leninist, state party from 1 Oct 1949, est.23 Jul 1921); KMT = Zhongguo Guomindang/Chung-kuo Kuo-min-tang (National Party of China, "Kuomintang", nationalist, republican, conservative, anti-Communist, 1 Jun 1931 - 28 Sep 1986 state party, est.23 Aug 1912-Nov 1913, re-formed.10 Oct 1919); SRD = Shengchan Renmin Dang/Sheng-ch'an Jen-min Tang (Producer [Productive] People's Party, moderate socialist, anti-imperialism, anti-Japanese, anti-Chiang Kai-shek, split from KMT, formed during Fujian rebellion, 20 Nov 1933 - 13 Jan 1934); Mil = Military

Aug 1937 - Sep 1945        Japanese occupation of North Eastern China (from Sep 1931), the
                             Yellow River valley, Hainan, and most of the coastal provinces.
14 Dec 1937                Provisional Government of the Republic of China organized at Beijing
                             under Japanese occupation.
28 Mar 1938                Reformed Government setup at Nanjing under Japanese occupation.
30 Mar 1940                National Government of the Republic of China reorganized under
                             Wang Jingwei (Wang Ching-wei) at Nanjing (as a merger of Provisional
                             Government and the Reformed Government and from 4 Aug 1941,
                             Mengjiang)(it was recognized as the government of China only by
                             the Axis powers, most Axis satellite states, and Spain).
20 Nov 1940                Sino-Japanese Basic Treaty signed, by which Japan recognized the
                             Wang Jingwei Nationalist government, and Wang Jingwei's
                             National Government government recognized Manchukuo.
16 Aug 1945                National Government declares its dissolution.

Head of the Executive Committee of Provisional Government of the Republic of China (at Beijing)
14 Dec 1937 - 30 Mar 1940  Wang Kemin (Wang K'o-min)          (b. 1873 - d. 1945)  Non-party

Head of the Executive Yuan of the Reformed Government of the Republic of China (at Nanjing)
28 Mar 1938 - 30 Mar 1940  Liang Hongzhi (Liang Hung-chih)    (b. 1883 - d. 1946)  Non-party
                             (acting to 29 Jul 1938)

Presidents of the National Government of the Republic of China (at Nanjing)
30 Mar 1940 - 10 Nov 1944  Wang Zhaoming "Wang Jingwei"       (b. 1883 - d. 1944)  KMT-WC
                             (Wang Chao-ming "Wang Ching-wei")
                             (acting to 29 Nov 1940; departed for Japan 3 Mar 1944)
22 Mar 1944 - 16 Aug 1945  Chen Gongbo (Ch'en Kung-po)        (b. 1892 - d. 1946)  KMT-WC
                             (acting [for Wang to 10 Nov 1944] to 12 Nov 1944)

Heads of the Executive Yuan (Prime ministers)(at Nanjing)
30 Mar 1940 - 10 Nov 1944  Wang Zhaoming "Wang Jingwei"       (s.a.)               KMT-WC
                             (Wang Chao-ming "Wang Ching-wei")
                             (departed for Japan 3 Mar 1944)
10 Nov 1944 - 12 Nov 1944  Zhou Fohai (Chou Fo-hai) (acting)  (b. 1897 - d. 1948)  KMT-WC
12 Nov 1944 - 16 Aug 1945  Chen Gongbo (Ch'en Kung-po)        (s.a.)               KMT-WC
                           

Chairmen of the North China Government Affairs Committee (at Beijing)
(subordinated to the National Government in Nanjing)
30 Mar 1940 -  6 Jun 1940  Wang Kemin (Wang K'o-min)(1st time)(s.a.)               Non-party
 6 Jun 1940 -  8 Feb 1943  Wang Yitang (Wang I-t'ang)         (b. 1877 - d. 1948)  KMT-WC
 8 Feb 1943 -  2 Jul 1943  Zhu Shen (Chu Ch'en)               (b. 1879 - d. 1943)  KMT-WC
 6 Jul 1943 - 15 Feb 1945  Wang Kemin (2nd time)              (s.a.)               Non-party
15 Feb 1945 - 16 Aug 1945  Wang Yintai (Wang Yin-t'ai)        (b. 1886 - d. 1961)  Non-party

Japanese Administrative Advisor to Provisional Government of the Republic of China (at Beijing)
27 Apr 1938 - 30 Mar 1940  Michio Yuzawa                      (b. 1888 - d. 1963)
Japanese Special Envoy to the National Government of the Republic of China (at Nanjing)
 1 Apr 1940 -  7 Dec 1940  Nobuyuki Abe                       (b. 1875 - d. 1953)
Japanese Ambassadors Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary of the Imperial Government of Japan
to the National Government of China (at Nanjing)
26 Dec 1940 - 19 Dec 1941  Kumataro Honda                     (b. 1874 - d. 1948)
Dec 1941 - 20 Apr 1943     Mamoru Shigemitsu                  (b. 1887 - d. 1957)
21 Apr 1943 - 10 Dec 1945  Masayuki Tani                      (b. 1889 - d. 1962)

Japanese Commanders of Shanghai Expeditionary Army
15 Aug 1937 -  2 Dec 1937  Iwane Matsui                       (b. 1878 - d. 1948) 
 2 Dec 1937 - 14 Feb 1938  Prince Yasuhikō Asaka              (b. 1887 - d. 1981)
Commanders of China Expeditionary Army
22 Sep 1939 -  1 Mar 1941  Nishio Toshizō (Nishio Juzo)       (b. 1881 - d. 1960)
 1 Mar 1941 - 23 Nov 1944  Shūnroku Hata                      (b. 1879 - d. 1962)
23 Nov 1944 -  9 Sep 1945  Yasuji Okamura                     (b. 1884 - d. 1964)
Commander of Central China Area Army
30 Oct 1937 - 14 Feb 1938  Iwane Matsui                       (s.a.) 
Commanders of Central China Expeditionary Army
14 Feb 1938 - 14 Dec 1938  Shunroku Hata                      (b. 1879 - d. 1962) 
15 Sep 1938 - 23 Dec 1939  Otozō Yamada                       (b. 1881 - d. 1965) 
Commanders of Central District Army
 2 Aug 1937 - 26 Aug 1937  Kesago Nakajima                    (b. 1881 - d. 1945)
26 Aug 1937 - 28 Dec 1937  Shigeru Hasunuma                   (b. 1883 – d. 1954)
28 Dec 1937 -  1 Aug 1939  Hisao Tani                         (b. 1882 - d. 1947)
 1 Aug 1939 -  9 Mar 1940  Waichirō Sonobe (Ichiro Sonobe)    (b. 1883 – d. 1963)
 9 Mar 1940 - 20 Jun 1941  Yoshio Iwamatsu                    (b. 1886 – d. 1958)
20 Jun 1941 - 17 Aug 1942  Yōji Fujii                         (b. 1887 – d. 1945)
17 Aug 1942 - 21 Feb 1944  Jun Ushiroku                       (b. 1884 - d. 1973)  
21 Feb 1944 -  1 Dec 1944  Shōjirō Iida                       (b. 1888 - d. 1980) 
 1 Dec 1944 -  7 Apr 1945  Masakazu Kawabe                    (b. 1886 - d. 1965) 
 7 Apr 1945 - 30 Sep 1945  Eitarō Uchiyama                    (b. 1887 - d. 1973)
Commanders of Northern China Area Army 
26 Aug 1937 -  9 Dec 1938  Count Hisaichi Terauchi            (b. 1879 - d. 1946) 
 9 Dec 1938 - 12 Sep 1939  Hajime Sugiyama                    (b. 1880 - d. 1945)
12 Sep 1939 -  7 Jul 1941  Hayao Tada                         (b. 1882 - d. 1948)
 7 Jul 1941 - 25 Aug 1944  Yasuji Okamura                     (s.a.)
25 Aug 1944 - 22 Nov 1944  Noasaburō Okabe                    (b. 1886 - d. 1946) 
22 Nov 1944 - 19 Aug 1945  Sadamu Shimomura                   (b. 1887 - d. 1968)
19 Aug 1945 -  2 Sep 1945  Hiroshi Nemoto                     (b. 1891 - d. 1961) 
Commanders of Southern Area Army
10 Feb 1940 -  5 Oct 1940  Rikichi Andō                       (b. 1884 - d. 1946) 
 5 Oct 1940 - 26 Jun 1941  Jun Ushiroku                       (s.a.) 
 6 Nov 1941 - 12 Sep 1945  Count Hisaichi Terauchi            (s.a.)

East Hebei Anti-Communist Autonomous Government

25 Nov 1935                East Hebei Anti-Communist Autonomous Committee established
                             by Japanese forces as a buffer between the Republic of China
                             and Manchukuo.
25 Dec 1935                Renamed East Hebei Anti-Communist Autonomous Government.
 1 Feb 1938                Absorbed into the Japanese-sponsored Provisional Government of
                             China at Beijing (Pei-ching).

Chairman of the East Hebei Anti-Communist Autonomous Committee (at Tongzhou [T'ung-chou])
25 Nov 1935 - 25 Dec 1935  Yin Rugeng (Yin Ju-keng)           (b. 1885 - d. 1947)  KMT
Directors of Government Affairs of the East Hebei Anti-Communist Autonomous Government
(at Tongzhou [T'ung-chou]; from Aug 1937, Tangshan [T'ang-shan])
25 Dec 1935 - 29 Jul 1937  Yin Rugeng (Yin Ju-keng)           (s.a.)               KMT
29 Jul 1937 -  1 Feb 1938  Chi Zongmo (Ch'ih Tsung-mo)        (b. 1890 - d. 1951)  Non-party?

Party abbreviations: KMT = Zhongguo Guomindang/Chung-kuo Kuo-min-tang (National Party of China, "Kuomintang", nationalist, republican, conservative, anti-Communist, 1 Jun 1931 - 28 Sep 1986 state party, est.23 Aug 1912-Nov 1913, re-formed.10 Oct 1919); KMT-WC = Zhongguo Guomindang - Wang Jingwei/Chung-kuo Kuo-min-tang - Wang Ching-wei (National Party of China - Wang Jingwei faction, anti-Communist, pan-Asianism, KMT/Chiang Kai-shek opposition, pro-Japanese, puppet government state party, 30 Mar 1940-16 Aug 1945); Mil = Military

18 Sep 1931                Japanese invasion and occupation of Manchuria (North Eastern
                             Provinces of China - Heilongjiang, Jilin, and Liaoning) begins.
18 Feb 1932                North Eastern Provinces of China are declared independent by
                             resolution of a conference of governors of the North Eastern
                             provinces at Changchun, renamed Xinjing (Hsin-ching)[Hsinking]
                             on 13 Mar 1932.
 1 Mar 1932                Manchuria (Chinese: Manzhouguo [Man-chou-kuo], in Japanese:
                             Manshūkoku)(romanized as "Manchukuo"); achieving only limited
                             international recognition¹.
15 Sep 1932                Japan recognizes the Manchukuo state by Japan–Manchukuo Protocol.
21 Jan 1933                Jehol province of China annexed to Manchukuo.
 1 Mar 1934                Empire of Manchuria (Chinese: Manzhoudiguo [Man-chou-ti-kuo], in
                             Japanese: Manshū Teikoku)(Manchuria [Manzhouguo] also in
                             official use).
 1 Dec 1937                Japan renounces extraterritoriality in Manchukuo.
 9 Aug 1945                Soviet invasion begins (Hailar and Suifenhe occupied on 9 Aug 1945;
                             Mudanjiang on 16 Aug 1945; Harbin on 18 Aug 1945; Fengtian
                             [Shenyang], Qiqihar [Tsitsihar], and Xinjing [Changchun] are
                             occupied on 20 Aug 1945).
17 Aug 1945                Abdication of the emperor proclaimed at the town of Dalizigou,
                             Linjiang county in Tonghua province (now part of the city of
                             Linjiang, Jilin Province).
17 Aug 1945 -  3 May 1946  Manchuria (Russian: Man'chzhuriya) occupied by the Soviet Union.

Japanese Commander, Kwantung Army
18 Sep 1931 - 17 Feb 1932  Baron Shigeru Honjō                 (b. 1876 - d. 1945)  Mil
Head of the Administrative Committee of the Northeast
17 Feb 1932 -  9 Mar 1932  Zhang Jinghui (Chang Ching-hui)     (b. 1871 - d. 1959)  Non-party
Chief Executive
 9 Mar 1932 -  1 Mar 1934  Puyi (P'u-i)                        (b. 1906 - d. 1967) 7-1932:CAM
                             nianhao: Datong (Ta-t'ung)
Emperor (Huangdi)
 1 Mar 1934 - 17 Aug 1945  Puyi                                (s.a.)
                             nianhao: Kangde (K'ang-te)
                           (left Xinjing 11 Aug 1945, abdicated at Dalizigou 17 Aug 1945)
                           (Soviet prisoner 17 Aug 1945 - 1 Aug 1950, Chinese
                            prisoner 1 Aug 1950 - 4 Dec 1959)
Commander-in-chief of Soviet Forces in the Far East
17 Aug 1945 -  3 May 1946  Aleksandr Mikhaylovich Vasilevskiy  (b. 1895 - d. 1977)  Mil

Prime Minister
 9 Mar 1932 -  1 Mar 1934  Zheng Xiaoxu (Cheng Hsiao-hsü)      (b. 1860 - d. 1938) 7-1932:CAM
                             (inauguration ceremony 10 Mar 1932)
Ministers of State (prime ministers)
 1 Mar 1934 - 21 May 1935  Zheng Xiaoxu (Cheng Hsiao-hsü)      (s.a.)               CAM
21 May 1935 - 17 Aug 1945  Zhang Jinghui (Chang Ching-hui)     (s.a.)               CAM

Commanders, Kwantung Army (Kantō-gun) and (from 15 Sep 1932) Japanese Ambassadors
 1 Aug 1931 -  8 Aug 1932  Baron Shigeru Honjō                 (s.a.)               Mil
 8 Aug 1932 - 27 Jul 1933  Baron Nobuyoshi Mutō                (b. 1868 - d. 1933)  Mil
29 Jul 1933 - 10 Dec 1934  Takashi Hishikari                   (b. 1871 - d. 1952)  Mil
10 Dec 1934 -  6 Mar 1936  Jirō Minami                         (s.a.)               Mil
 6 Mar 1936 -  7 Sep 1939  Kenkichi Ueda                       (b. 1875 - d. 1962)  Mil
 7 Sep 1939 - 18 Jul 1944  Yoshijirō Umezu                     (b. 1882 - d. 1949)  Mil
18 Jul 1944 - 17 Aug 1945  Otozō Yamada                        (b. 1881 - d. 1965)  Mil

Party abbreviations: CAM = Manzhouguo Xiehehui/Man-chou-kuo Hsieh-ho-hui (Concordia Association of Manchukuo, fascist, monarchist, Manchurian nationalist, pan-Asianism, anti-communist, Puyi personalist, only officially sanctioned political party, 25 Jul 1932 - 18 Aug 1945); Mil = Military

 ¹Manchukuo was only recognized by the following countries: Japan (15 Sep 1932), El Salvador (3 Mar 1934), Italy (20 Nov 1937), Spain (2 Dec 1937), Germany (12 May 1938), Hungary (14 Jan 1939), Slovakia (1 Jun 1939), Poland (19 Oct 1939), Rumania (3 Dec 1940), Bulgaria (14 May 1941), Finland (19 Jul 1941), Denmark (Aug 1941), Thailand (1 Aug 1941) and Croatia (2 Aug 1941); along with the Japanese sponsored governments - Wang Jingwei's National Government of China (30 Nov 1940), Philippine Republic of José Laurel (1943), and the Provisional Government of Free India of Subhas Chandra Bose (1944). The Holy See (Vatican City) sent a representative ad tempus responsible for religious missions (18 Apr 1934), but did not formally recognize Manchukuo's independence. The Soviet Union extended de facto recognition on 23 Mar 1935, but explicitly noted that this did not mean de jure recognition. Upon signing the Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact on 13 Apr 1941 (denounced by the USSR 5 Apr 1945), the USSR pledged to respect the territorial integrity and inviolability of Manchoukuo and Japan pledged to respect the territorial integrity and inviolability of the Mongolia.

1936 - 1945                Chahar, Suiyuan, and the northern part of Shanxi provinces under
                             Japanese occupation.
12 May 1936                Military Government of Mongolia (or Mongolian Military Government)
                             (Menggu jun zhengfu) established in Jabsar (Huade) by pro-
                             Japanese Mongol elements.
27 Oct 1937                Autonomous Government of the Mongolian Union (Menggu lianmeng zizhi
                             zhengfu).
22 Nov 1937                United Committee of the Mongolian Border Region (Mengjiang lianhe
                             weiyuanhui) formed by the Autonomous Government of South Chahar,
                             the Autonomous Government of North Shanxi, and the Autonomous
                             Government of the Mongolian Union (referred in short as
                             "Mengjiang" [Meng-chiang]; also referred to as "Mengguguo" or
                             "Mengkukuo" in analogy to Manzhouguo [Manchoukuo] the Manchurian
                             Japanese puppet government).  
 1 Sep 1939                United Autonomous Government of the Mongolian Border (Mengjiang
                             Lianhe Zizhi Zhengfu/Mongghol un öbertegen jasaqu qolboyatu jasay
                             un ordon).
 4 Aug 1941                Autonomous State of Mongolia (Menggu zizhi bang). From 1942 an
                             autonomous region of the Japanese-sponsored National Government
                             of China at Nanjing.
 9 Aug 1945                Soviet–Mongolian joint motor division enters Inner Mongolia.
19 Aug 1945                Government dissolves with the departure of Dewang.
21 Aug 1945                Zhangjiakou [Kalgan] occupied by Soviet forces.

Chairman of the Military Government of Mongolia
24 May 1936 - 28 Oct 1937  Yunduan Wang Chu Ke (= Yun Wang)  (b. 1871 - d. 1938)
                             (Yün-tuan Wang Ch'u K'o)
Chairman of the Autonomous Government of the Mongolian Union
28 Oct 1937 - 22 Nov 1937  Yunduan Wang Chu Ke (= Yun Wang)  (s.a.)       
Chairmen of the United Committee of the Mongolian Border Region
22 Nov 1937 - 24 Mar 1938  Yunduan Wang Chu Ke (= Yun Wang)  (s.a.)          
24 Mar 1938 -  1 Sep 1939  Demuchukedonglupu "Dewang"        (b. 1902 - d. 1966)
                             (Te-mu-ch'u-k'o-tung-lu-p'u)   
                             (= Demchigdonrov)   
Chairman of the United Autonomous Government of the Mongolian Border
 1 Sep 1939 -  4 Aug 1941  Demuchukedonglupu "Dewang"        (s.a.)  
Chairman of the Autonomous State of Mongolia
 4 Aug 1941 - 19 Aug 1945  Demuchukedonglupu "Dewang"        (s.a.)
                             (Mongolian prisoner Feb-18 Sep 1950;
                             Chinese prisoner 18 Sep 1950-1963)

Vice-chairman of the Executive Council of the Military Government of Mongolia
 8 Jan 1936 - 28 Oct 1937  Demuchukedonglupu "Dewang"        (s.a.)
                             (Te-mu-ch'u-k'o-tung-lu-p'u)   
                             (= Demchigdonrov)   
Director of the Executive Branch of the Autonomous Government of the Mongolian Union
28 Oct 1937 - 22 Nov 1937  Demuchukedonglupu "Dewang"        (s.a.)
Vice-chairman and Director of the Executive Branch of United Committee of the
Mongolian Border Region
22 Nov 1937 - 24 Mar 1938  Demuchukedonglupu "Dewang"        (s.a.)
Deans of the Council of State Affairs of the United Autonomous Government
of the Mongolian Border (from 4 Aug 1941, Autonomous State of Mongolia)
 1 Sep 1939 - Jun 1941     Jodovjav (= Zhuotebazhabu)        (b. 1873 - d. 1947)
                             (Zhuo Shihai [Cho Shih-hai])
Jun 1941 - 1944            Ünenbayan (Wu Heling [Wu Ho-ling])(b. 1896 - d. 1979)
1944 - 19 Aug 1945         Demuchukedonglupu "Dewang"        (s.a.)

Japanese Supreme Advisers
27 Oct 1937 - 27 Nov 1941  Shōji Kanai (= Altan Khudagh)     (b. 1886 - d. 1967)
27 Nov 1941 -  3 Sep 1942  Tadakazu Ohashi                   (b. 1893 - d. 1975)
26 Feb 1945 - Aug 1945     Shōichi Kanki                     (b. 1897 - d. 1964)

Japanese General Officers Commanding the Mongolia Garrison Army (Chūmōgun)
(subordinated to the commanders of the Northern China Area Army)
28 Dec 1937 - 31 Aug 1939  Shigeru Hasunuma                  (b. 1883 - d. 1954)
                             (of the Mongolia Garrison Group to 4 Jul 1938)
31 Aug 1939 - 12 Sep 1939  Hajime Sugiyama                   (b. 1880 - d. 1945)
12 Sep 1939 - 29 Sep 1940  Noasaburō Okabe                   (b. 1886 - d. 1946) 
29 Sep 1940 - 20 Jan 1941  Masataka Yamawaki                 (b. 1886 - d. 1974)
20 Jan 1941 -  2 Mar 1942  Shigetaro Amakasu                 (b. 1887 - d. 1958)
 2 Mar 1942 - 28 May 1943  Ichirō Shichida                   (b. 1886 - d. 1957)
28 May 1943 - 22 Nov 1944  Yoshio Kōzuki                     (b. 1886 - d. 1971)
22 Nov 1944 - 19 Aug 1945  Hiroshi Nemoto                    (b. 1891 - d. 1961)

People's Republic of China

Transliteration note: Names are given in Hanyu Pinyin romanization, without tone-marking diacritics (the first edition of Hanyu Pinyin was approved and adopted by China on 11 Feb 1958). Prior to 1979, names are given in the older Wade-Giles romanization in parentheses, i.e. Mao Zedong (Mao Tse-tung).

Note: Deng Xiaoping (Teng Hsiao-p'ing)(b. 1904 - d. 1997) was de facto leader from the late 1970's to the early 1990's. He did not take over the chairmanship of the State, the Government or the General Secretary of the Party, but from 1978 to his death 19 Feb 1997 he was the unquestionable Paramount Leader. He was Chairman of the Military Affairs Committee 22 Dec 1978 - 9 Nov 1989; he rose to power after being rehabilitated in Jul 1977 and became more and more frail in the 1990's (his last public appearance was 9 Feb 1994).

Chairmen of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China
20 Mar 1943 -  9 Sep 1976  Mao Zedong (Mao Tse-tung)          (b. 1893 - d. 1976)
 9 Sep 1976 - 29 Jun 1981  Hua Guofeng (Hua Kuo-feng)         (b. 1921 - d. 2008)
                             (acting to 9 Oct 1976)
29 Jun 1981 - 12 Sep 1982  Hu Yaobang (Hu Yao-pang)           (b. 1915 - d. 1989)
General Secretaries of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China
(top party post from 12 Sep 1982)
29 Feb 1980 - 16 Jan 1987  Hu Yaobang                         (s.a.)
16 Jan 1987 - 24 Jun 1989  Zhao Ziyang (acting to 2 Nov 1987) (b. 1919 - d. 2005) 
24 Jun 1989 - 15 Nov 2002  Jiang Zemin                        (b. 1926 - d. 2022)
15 Nov 2002 - 15 Nov 2012  Hu Jintao                          (b. 1942)
15 Nov 2012 -              Xi Jinping                         (b. 1953)

Chairman of the Central People's Government
 1 Oct 1949 - 27 Sep 1954  Mao Zedong (Mao Tse-tung)          (s.a.)               CPC
Chairmen¹
27 Sep 1954 - 27 Apr 1959  Mao Zedong                         (s.a.)               CPC
27 Apr 1959 - 31 Oct 1968  Liu Shaoqi (Liu Shao-ch'i)         (b. 1898 - d. 1969)  CPC
31 Oct 1968 - 24 Feb 1972  Dong Biwu (Tung Pi-wu)             (b. 1886 - d. 1975)  CPC
                           + Song Qingling (f)                (b. 1893 - d. 1981)  CPC
                             (Sung Ch'ing-ling)
                           (acting)
24 Feb 1972 - 17 Jan 1975  Dong Biwu (acting)                 (s.a.)               CPC
Chairmen of the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress
17 Jan 1975 -  6 Jul 1976  Zhu De (Chu Te)                    (b. 1886 - d. 1976)  CPC
 6 Jul 1976 -  5 Mar 1978  Vacant²
 5 Mar 1978 - 18 Jun 1983  Ye Jianying (Yeh Chien-ying)       (b. 1897 - d. 1986)  CPC
Presidents¹
18 Jun 1983 -  8 Apr 1988  Li Xiannian                        (b. 1909 - d. 1992)  CPC
 8 Apr 1988 - 27 Mar 1993  Yang Shangkun                      (b. 1907 - d. 1998)  CPC
27 Mar 1993 - 15 Mar 2003  Jiang Zemin                        (s.a.)               CPC
15 Mar 2003 - 14 Mar 2013  Hu Jintao                          (s.a.)               CPC
14 Mar 2013 -              Xi Jinping                         (s.a.)               CPC

Premier of the Government Administration Council of the Central People's Government
 1 Oct 1949 - 27 Sep 1954  Zhou Enlai (Chou En-lai)           (b. 1898 - d. 1976)  CPC  
Premiers of the State Council
27 Sep 1954 -  8 Jan 1976  Zhou Enlai                         (s.a.)               CPC
 8 Jan 1976 -  2 Feb 1976  Vacant³
 2 Feb 1976 - 10 Sep 1980  Hua Guofeng (Hua Kuo-feng)         (s.a.)               CPC
                             (acting to 7 Apr 1976)
10 Sep 1980 - 24 Nov 1987  Zhao Ziyang                        (s.a.)               CPC
24 Nov 1987 - 17 Mar 1998  Li Peng (acting to 9 Apr 1988)     (b. 1928 - d. 2019)  CPC
17 Mar 1998 - 16 Mar 2003  Zhu Rongji                         (b. 1928)            CPC
16 Mar 2003 - 15 Mar 2013  Wen Jiabao                         (b. 1942)            CPC
15 Mar 2013 - 11 Mar 2023  Li Keqiang                         (b. 1955 - d. 2023)  CPC
11 Mar 2023 -              Li Qiang                           (b. 1959)            CPC          

 ¹The title "chairman" for the heads of state in 1954-1975 represents the same Chinese term (zhuxi) that is commonly translated "president" for the heads of state after 1983.

 ²Deputy Chairmen of the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress during the vacancy: Wu De (b. 1914 - d. 1995)(mostly performed the chairman's functions), Song Qingling (f)(s.a.), Liu Bocheng (b. 1892 - d. 1986), Wei Guoqing (b. 1913 - d. 1989), Saifuding Aizezi (Seypidin)(b. 1915 - d. 2003), Chen Yun (b. 1905 - d. 1995), Tan Zhenlin (b. 1902 - d. 1983), Li Jingquan (b. 1909 - d. 1989), Ulanhu (b. 1906 - d. 1988), Guo Moruo (b. 1892 - d. 1978), Xu Xiangqian (b. 1901 - d. 1990), Nie Rongzhen (b. 1899 - d. 1992), Zhang Dingcheng (b. 1898 - d. 1981), Cai Chang (f)(b. 1900 - d. 1990), Ngapoi Ngawang Jigme (b. 1910 - d. 2009), Zhou Jianren (b. 1888 - d. 1984), Xu Deheng (b. 1890 - d. 1990), Hu Juewen (b. 1895 - d. 1989), Li Suwen (f) (b. 1933 - d. 2022), Yao Lianwei (b. 1935 - d. 2012), and from 2 Dec 1976, Deng Yingchao (f)(b. 1904 - d. 1992). 

 ³Vice-Premiers of the State Council acting during the vacancy: Deng Xiaoping (s.a.), Li Xiannian (s.a.), Chen Xilian (b. 1915 - d. 1999), Ji Dengkui (b. 1923 - d. 1988), Hua Guofeng (s.a.), Chen Yonggui (b. 1915 - d. 1986), Wu Guixian (f)(b. 1938), Wang Zhen (b. 1908 - d. 1993), Yu Qiuli (b. 1914 - d. 1999), Gu Mu (b. 1914 - d. 2009), and Sun Jian (b. 1936 - d. 1997).

Party abbreviations: CPC = Zhongguo Gongchandang (Communist Party of China, communist, authoritarian, Chinese nationalist, Marxist-Leninist, state party from 1 Oct 1949, est.23 Jul 1921); Mil = Military

Territorial Disputes: Taiwan is claimed by People's Republic of China; China and India continue their security and foreign policy dialogue started in 2005 related to a number of boundary disputes across the 2,000 mile shared border; India does not recognize Pakistan's 1964 ceding to China of the Aksai Chin, a territory designated as part of the princely state of Kashmir by the British Survey of India in 1865; China and India continue their security and foreign policy dialogue started in 2005 related to a number of boundary disputes across the 2,000 mile shared border; China claims most of the Indian state Arunachal Pradesh to the base of the Himalayas, but The U.S. recognizes the state of Arunachal Pradesh as Indian territory; Bhutan and China continue negotiations to establish a common boundary alignment to resolve territorial disputes arising from substantial cartographic discrepancies, the most contentious of which lie in Bhutan's west along China's Chumbi salient; Chinese maps show an international boundary symbol off the coasts of the littoral states of the South China Seas, where China has interrupted Vietnamese hydrocarbon exploration; China asserts sovereignty over Scarborough Reef along with the Philippines and Taiwan, and over the Spratly Islands together with Malaysia, the Philippines, Taiwan, Vietnam, and Brunei; the 2002 Declaration on the Conduct of Parties in the South China Sea eased tensions in the Spratlys, and in 2017 China and ASEAN began confidential negotiations for an updated Code of Conduct for the South China Sea designed not to settle territorial disputes but establish rules and norms in the region; this still is not the legally binding code of conduct sought by some parties; Vietnam and China continue to expand construction of facilities in the Spratlys and in early 2018 China deployed advanced military systems to disputed Spratly outposts; China occupies some of the Paracel Islands also claimed by Vietnam and Taiwan; China and Taiwan continue to reject both Japan's claims to the uninhabited islands of Senkaku-shoto (Diaoyu Tai) and in 23 Nov 2013 China's declaration of an "air defense identification zone" in an area that includes islands and Japan's unilaterally declared equidistance line in the East China Sea, the site of intensive hydrocarbon exploration and exploitation; certain islands in the Yalu and Tumen rivers are in dispute with North Korea; North Korea and China seek to stem illegal migration to China by North Koreans, fleeing privation and oppression; China and Russia have demarcated the once disputed islands at the Amur and Ussuri confluence and in the Argun River in accordance with their 2004 Agreement; China and Tajikistan have begun demarcating the revised boundary agreed to in the delimitation of 2002; the decade-long demarcation of the China-Vietnam land boundary was completed in 2009; citing environmental, cultural, and social concerns, China has reconsidered construction of 13 dams on the Salween River, but energy-starved Burma, with backing from Thailand, remains intent on building five hydro-electric dams downstream despite regional and international protests; Hong Kong plans to reduce its 2,800-hectare Frontier Closed Area (FCA) to 400 hectares by 2015, the FCA was established in 1951 as a buffer zone between Hong Kong and mainland China to prevent illegal migration from and the smuggling of goods; China may have constructed 11 buildings in Nepal's Humla region in 2021.