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Côte d'Ivoire (Ivory Coast)
 
[France]
10 Feb 1842 - 3 Dec 1959
[Côte d'Ivoire]
Adopted 3 Dec 1959
Map of Côte d'Ivoire
Hear National Anthem
"L'Abidjanaise"
(Song of Abidjan) 
Text of National Anthem
Adopted 7 Aug 1960
Constitution
 (1 Aug 2000; in French)
--------------------------------
Former Constitution
(3 Nov 1960 - 1 Aug 2000)
Capital: Yamoussoukro
(Abidjan 1934-21 Mar 1983;
Bingerville 1900-1934;
Assine 1889-1893;
Grand Bassam 1843-1889,
and 1893-1900)
Administrative: Abidjan
(from 21 Mar 1983)
Currency:  Communauté
Financière Africaine
Franc (XOF)
National Holiday: 7 Aug (1960)
Fête de l'Indépendance
(Independence Day)
Population: 26,260,582 (2018)
GDP: $97.16 billion (2017) 
Exports: $11.74 billion (2017)
Imports: $9.44 billion (2017)
Ethnic groups: Akan 28.8%, Voltaique or Gur 16.1%, Northern
 Mande 14.5%, Kru 8.5%, Southern Mande 6.9%,
unspecified 0.9%, non-Ivoirian 42.3% (2014)
Total Active Armed Forces: 17,050 (2010)
French Troops: 600 (2016)
Merchant marine: 9 ships (2017)
Religions: Muslim 42.9%, Catholic 17.2%, Evangelical 11.8%,
 Methodist 1.7%, other Christian 3.2%, animist 3.6%, other
religion 0.5%, none 19.1% (2014)
note: the majority of foreign migrant workers are
Muslim 72.7% and Christian 17.7% (2014)
International Organizations/Treaties: ACP, AfCFTA, AfDB, AIIB (nonregional), APM, AU, BCEAO, BTWC, CCM, CEMAC, CEN-SAD, CPLP (associate observer), CTBT, CWC, EBRD (applicant), ECOWAS, EITI, ESCR, FAO, FZ, G-24, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICCt, ICRM, ICSID, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Interpol, IOC, IOM, IPU, IRENA, ISA, ISESCO, ISO, ITSO, ITU, ITUC, LU, MIGA, NAM, NPT, NTBT, OIC, OIF, OPCW, UN, UNCLOS, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNFCC, UNFCC-KP, UNFCC-PA, UNHCR, UNIDO, UNWTO, UPU, WADB (regional), WAEMU, WCO, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTO
Côte d'Ivoire
Index
Chronology

1382 - 1413                French merchants from Dieppe and Rouen establish
                             trading Fort de la Mine on the Côte d'Or.
1700 - 1707                French Compagnie de Guinée trading post at Grand
                             Bassam.
24 Jun 1701 - 1703         French Compagnie de Guinée trading post at Assinie
                             (Fort Saint-Louis).

1838                       French Expeditions to Côte d'Ivoire under Lt.
                             Édouard Bouët-Willaumez aboard La Malouine.
10 Feb 1842                Grand Bassam king agrees to a French protectorate

                             proposed by Charles Philippe de Kerhallet
                             allowing France to build a fort (Fort-Nemours).
28 Sep 1843                Assinie and Sanwi kings agree to a French
                             protectorate signed with Fleuriot de Laugle
                             allowing France to build a fort (Fort Joinville),
                             part of the
Colony of Gorée (see Senegal)
                            
(Établissements Français de la Côte d'Or
                             [French Establishments of the Gold Coast]).
10 Oct 1853                Fort Ducos established at Dabou.
 4 Oct 1860                Ivory Coast territory of the Ivory Coast-Gabon
                             colony (see Gabon).
1871                       France surrenders administration to private                              traders, but maintains the protectorates.
The                                    major trader was Arthur Verdier & Company.
10 Nov 1878 - 1886         Administration under A
rthur Verdier & Company                               (Établissements Français de la Côte d'Ivoire).
16 Dec 1883                Ivory Coast subordinate to French Guinea                               (see Guinea).
10 Jan 1889                French protectorate of Ivory Coast (Côte d'Ivoire).
10 Mar 1893                French colony (Ivory Coast [
Côte d'Ivoire]).
16 Jun 1895                Part of French West Africa (see Senegal).
16 Jun 1940 - 23 Nov 1942  Administration loyal to "Vichy" France (from 23 Nov
                             1942 [under Darlan to 24 Dec 1942], "Free"
                             French).
27 Oct 1946                Ivory Coast overseas territory of France. 
11 Dec 1958                Autonomy (Republic of Ivory Coast [République de
                             Côte d'Ivoire]). 
11 Dec 1958 -  7 Aug 1960  Member state of the Communauté (French Community).
 6 Aug 1960                Accedes to sovereignty and independence in
                             accordance with a special agreement signed by
                             the representatives of Côte d'Ivoire and France.
 7 Aug 1960                Independence is proclaimed in Abidjan.
12 Oct 1985                Republic of Côte d'Ivoire (French name no longer
                             translated).
19 Sep 2002 -  4 Mar 2007  Civil war between government, MPCI, MPIGO and MPJ                              (in 2003 rebel groups merge as the FNCI).

Traditional
States
 United Nations Missions (2003-2017)
Historical Maps
of Ivory Coast
 
Côte d'Ivoire
Civil War
Maps
 
 
 
 
 
 

Commandants-particulier at Assinie (Fort Joinville)
25 Jun 1843 - 29 Jul 1843  Cinna Étienne Jean Rataillot       (b. 1801 - d. 1888)
                             (Rataillaud)(expedition commander)
29 Jul 1843 - 1844         Louis Léon Théodore Dufour de      (b. 1810 - d. 1875)
                             Mont-Louis 

1844 - c.1845              Boyer 
1846                       Tessa 
1847 - 26 Nov 1847         de Thévenard                       (d. 1847)
1848 - 1849                Brochard 
1850 - 1851                Lemaire 
1851 - 1853                Coquet 
1853 - 1855                de Thévenard  
1855                       Pierre Alexandre Mailhetard        (b. 1822 - d. 1889)
1856 - 1858               
Bonaventure René Denis             (b. 1811 - d. 1861)
1858 - 1862                ....
 4 Jan 1862 - 1863         Laurent Philippe Darré             (b. 1825 - d. 1896)
29 Apr 1863 - c.1864       F.L. Viard
1865 - 1866                Antoine-Marius Aime-Dieu           (b. 1827 - d. 1868) 
1866 - 186.                Bour        
1868/69/70                 Jean Auguste Martin

Commandants-particulier at Dabou (Fort Ducos)
10 Oct 1853 - 1854         Bernard François Benech            (b. 1820 - d. ....)
1854                       Durban 
1855                       Pierre Alexandre Mailhetard        (s.a.)
1856                       Jean-Charles Gindre
1856 - 1857                Édouard Guéden 
1857 - 1858                Bonaventure René Denis             (s.a.)
21 Dec 1861 - c.1867       Noël Bruyas                        (b. 1813 - d. ....)
1867/68                    F.E. Bouyer
c.1870                     Munier
Commandants-superior at Grand-Bassam (Fort Nemours)
17 Aug 1843 - 28 Sep 1843  Charles Marie Philippe de          (b. 1809 - d. 1863) 
                             Kerhallet (expedition commander)
28 Sep 1843 - 1844         Léon Besson                        (b. 1811 - d. 1880)
1844 - 1845                Joseph Pellegrin                   (b. 1789 - d. 1845)
1845 -  3 Jul 1846         Gilbert Jean-Baptiste Conjard      (b. 1814 - d. 1846)
1847 - 1848                Adolphe Pigeon (Pijeon)
1849 - 1850                Jean Jules Charles Boulay
1851 - 1853                Charles Gabriel Felicité Martin    (b. 1823 - d. 1876) 
                             des Pallières
1853 - 1854                François Chirat
1854 - 1855                Pierre Alexandre Mailhetard        (s.a.)
                             (1st time)
1856                       Noël Bruyas                        (s.a.)
1857                       Charles Brossard de Corbigny       (b. 1822 - d. 1900)
1858 - 1860                Pierre Alexandre Mailhetard        (s.a.) 
                             (2nd time)
10 Nov 1860 - Jul 1862     Charles René Gabriel Liébault      (b. 1808 - d. 1862)
28 Aug 1862 - 14 Jan 1863  Joseph Alem                        (d. 1863)
29 Apr 1863 - 1863         Jean Antoine Léonard Eudore Noyer  (b. 1813 - d. 1876)
1863 - 1864                Jacques Bertrand Oscar Desnouy     (b. 1823 - d. 1883)
1864 - 1866                Jean Auguste Martin
1866 - 1867                Léon Noël
1867 - 1869                Alfred Pouzols                     (b. 1833 - d. 1892)
1869 - 1871                Jean-Louis Vernet                  (b. 1793 - d. 1876)
Residents
(from 1881 subordinated to the Superior Commandant of Gabon and the Gulf of Guinea
Settlements; from 1886 subordinated to the Lieutenant governors of Guinea)
1871 - 1885                François Arthur Verdier            (b. 1835 - d. 1898)
                             (warden of the French Flag to 1878)
1885 - 1886                Charles Bour                       (b. 1849 - d. 19..)
                             (commandant-particulier)
1886 -  9 Mar 1890         Marcel Treich-Laplène              (b. 1860 - d. 1890)
 9 Mar 1890 - 14 Jun 1890  Jean Joseph Étienne Octave Péan    (b. 1858 - d. 1906)
                             (acting)
14 Jun 1890 - 1892         Jean Auguste Henri Desaille        (b. 1848 - d. 1939)
1892                       Éloi Jean Bricard (acting)
1892 - 12 Nov 1892         Julien Voisin (acting)             (b. 1875 - d. 1947)
12 Nov 1892 - 20 Mar 1893  Paul Alphonse Frédéric Marie de    (b. 1846 - d. 1915)
                             Beckman

Governors
20 Mar 1893 - 28 Aug 1895  Louis Gustave Binger               (b. 1856 - d. 1936)
1895                       Paul Jean François Cousturier      (b. 1849 - d. 1921)
                             (acting for Binger)

1895                       Jean Baptiste Philémon Lemaire     (b. 1856 - d. 1932)
                             (acting for Binger)
1895 - 25 Feb 1896         Pierre Hubert Auguste Pascal       (b. 1861 - d. 1946) 
                             (acting)
25 Feb 1896 - 13 May 1896  Théodule Charles Eugène Bertin     (b. 1856 - d. 1896)
                             (acting)
13 May 1896 - 14 May 1896  Jean Baptiste Castaing (acting)
    (b. 1864 - d. 1915)
14 May 1896 - 11 Sep 1898  Louis Mouttet                      (b. 1857 - d. 1902)
                             (acting to 19 Mar 1897)
1898                       Louis Alphonse Bonhoure            (b. 1864 - d. 1909)
                             (acting for Mouttet)
1898                       Antoine Julien Oscar Penel         (b. 1843 - d. 1908)
                             (acting for Mouttet)

1898                       Pierre Paul Marie Capest           (b. 1857 - d. 1924) 
                             (acting for Mouttet)
1898 - 11 Sep 1898         Jean Napoléon Ribes                (b. 1856 - d. 1919)
                             (acting for Mouttet)

11 Sep 1898 -  5 Nov 1902  Henri Charles Victor Amédée        (b. 1849 - d. 1916)
                             Roberdeau
 5 Nov 1902 - 25 Nov 1902  Albert Anatole Nebout (1st time)   (b. 1862 - d. 1939) 
                             (acting)
25 Nov 1902 - 25 Aug 1907  Marie François Joseph Clozel       (b. 1860 - d. 1918) 
                             (acting to 4 May 1903)
17 Jul 1904 -  6 Jan 1905  Émile Joseph Merwart               (b. 1869 - d. 1960)
                             (acting for Clozel)
19 Nov 1905 - 27 Oct 1906  Albert Anatole Nebout (2nd time)   (s.a.)
                             (acting for Clozel)
25 Aug 1907 - 25 Apr 1908  Albert Anatole Nebout (3rd time)   (s.a.)
                             (acting)
25 Apr 1908 - 27 Dec 1916  Gabriel Louis Angoulvant           (b. 1872 - d. 1932)
28 Apr 1909 - Aug 1909     Pierre Brun (acting for Angoulvant)(b. 1866 - d. 19..)
12 May 1911 -  9 Mar 1912  Marie Casimir Joseph Guyon         (b. 1870 - d. 1942) 
                             (1st time) (acting for Angoulvant)
22 Mar 1913 - 29 Oct 1913  Marie Casimir Joseph Guyon         (s.a.)
                             (2nd time) (acting for Angoulvant)
29 Oct 1913 -  4 Sep 1914  Gustave Jacques Henri Julien       (b. 1870 - d. 1936)
                             (acting for Angoulvant)
16 Jun 1916 - Jan 1918     Maurice Pierre Lapalud (1st time)  (b. 1868 - d. 1935)
                             (acting [for Angoulvant to 27 Dec 1916])
Jan 1918 -  2 Apr 1924     Raphaël Valentin Marius Antonetti  (b. 1872 - d. 1938)
Jun 1919 - 22 Sep 1919     Maurice Beurnier                   (b. 1878 - d. 1949)
                             (acting for Antonetti)
24 Jan 1922 - 28 Sep 1922  Pierre Aimable Chapon-Baissac      (b. 1876 – d. af.1934)
                             (acting for Antonetti)
 2 Apr 1924 -  2 Jul 1925  Richard Édmond Maurice Édouard     (b. 1883 - d. 1958)
                             Brunot (acting)
 2 Jul 1925 - 25 Aug 1930  Maurice Pierre Lapalud (2nd time)  (s.a.)
20 May 1927 - Mar 1928     Maurice Léon Bourgine              (b. 1879 - d. 1963)
                             (acting for Lapalud)
25 Aug 1930 - 28 Oct 1930  Joseph Jules Brévié                (b. 1880 - d. 1964)
28 Oct 1930 - 16 Jan 1931  Jean-Paul Boutonnet (acting)       (b. 1877 - d. 1967)
16 Jan 1931 -  7 May 1935  Dieudonné François Joseph Marie    (b. 1879 - d. 1976)
                             Reste                       
 3 Mar 1931 - 28 Dec 1932  Raoul Joseph Bourgine              (b. 1895 - d. 1985)
                             (acting for Reste)

 7 May 1935 - 28 Jun 1935  Marie Alphonse Flottes de Pouzols  (b. 1884 - d. 1935) 
                             (acting)
28 Jun 1935 -  7 Mar 1936  Adolphe Deitte                     (b. 1879 - d. 1949)
 7 Mar 1936 - 28 Nov 1936  Georges Julien Lamy (acting)       (b. 1878 - d. 1940)
28 Nov 1936 - 16 Jul 1938  Gaston Charles Julien Mondon
16 Jul 1938 - 27 Jan 1939  Louis Henri François Denis         (b. 1884 - d. 19..)
                             Bressolles (acting)

27 Jan 1939 -  1 Jan 1941  Horace Valentin Croccichia         (b. 1888 - d. 1976) 
                             (acting to 5 Mar 1940) 
 1 Jan 1941 - 29 Sep 1942  Hubert Jules Deschamps             (b. 1900 - d. 1979)
29 Sep 1942 -  3 Aug 1943  Georges Pierre Rey                 (b. 1897 - d. 1977)
 3 Aug 1943 - 26 Aug 1943  Jean François Toby                 (b. 1900 - d. 1964)
26 Aug 1943 - 16 Aug 1945  André Jean Gaston Latrille         (b. 1894 - d. 1987) 
                             (1st time)
16 Aug 1945 - Apr 1946     Henry Jean Marie de Mauduit        (b. 1897 - d. 1975)
Apr 1946 - 20 Feb 1947     André Jean Gaston Latrille         (s.a.)
                             (2nd time)
20 Feb 1947 - 29 Jan 1948  Oswald Marcellin Maurice Maruis    (b. 1888 - d. 1982)
                             Durand (acting to 20 May 1947)
29 Jan 1948 - 10 Nov 1948  Georges Louis Joseph Orselli       (b. 1896 - d. 1971)
10 Nov 1948 - 25 Apr 1952  Laurent Élisée Péchoux             (b. 1904 - d. 2000)
25 Apr 1952 - 10 Jul 1952  Pierre François Pélieu             (b. 1906 - d. 1952)
10 Jul 1952 - 19 Feb 1954  Camille Victor Bailly              (b. 1907 - d. 1984)
19 Feb 1954 - 18 Feb 1956  Pierre Joseph Auguste Messmer      (b. 1916 - d. 2007)
18 Feb 1956 - 23 Feb 1957  Pierre Auguste Michel Marie Lami   (b. 1909 - d. 1994) 
                             (acting to 28 May 1956)
23 Feb 1957 -  4 Dec 1958  Ernest Maurice de Nattes           (b. 1908 - d. 1994)
High Commissioners
 4 Dec 1958 - 15 Jul 1959  Ernest Maurice de Nattes           (s.a.)
15 Jul 1959 -  7 Aug 1960  Yves René Henri Guéna              (b. 1922 - d. 2016)
Chief of State, Prime minister
30 Apr 1959 -  7 Dec 1960  Félix Houphouët-Boigny             (b. 1905 - d. 1993)  PDCI
                             (prime minister to 30 Jul 1960)
Presidents

 7 Dec 1960 -  7 Dec 1993  Félix Houphouët-Boigny             (s.a.)               PDCI
 7 Dec 1993 - 24 Dec 1999  Aimé Henri Konan Bédié             (b. 1934 - d. 2023)  PDCI
24 Dec 1999 - 26 Oct 2000  Robert Guéï                        (b. 1941 - d. 2002)  Mil
                            (president of National Committee for
                             Public Salvation to 27 Dec 1999)
26 Oct 2000 -  4 Dec 2010  Laurent Koudou Gbagbo              (b. 1945)            FPI 
                             (continued in dissidence to 11 Apr 2011)
 4 Dec 2010 -              
Alassane Dramane Ouattara          (b. 1942)            RDR + RHDP

Vice President of the Government Council
17 May 1957 - 26 Jul 1958  Marcel Auguste Denise              (b. 1906 - d. 1991)  PDCI
President of the Government Council
26 Jul 1958 - 30 Apr 1959  Marcel Auguste Denise              (s.a.)               PDCI
                             (president of the provisional government from 4 Dec 1958)
Prime ministers

30 Apr 1959 -  7 Dec 1960  Félix Houphouët-Boigny             (s.a.)               PDCI
 7 Dec 1960 -  7 Nov 1990  Post abolished
 7 Nov 1990 - 11 Dec 1993  Alassane Dramane Ouattara          (s.a.)               PDCI
11 Dec 1993 - 24 Dec 1999  Daniel Kablan Duncan (1st time)    (b. 1943)            PDCI
24 Dec 1999 - 18 May 2000  Vacant 
18 May 2000 - 27 Oct 2000  Seydou Elimane Diarra (1st time)   (b. 1933 - d. 2020)  Non-party
27 Oct 2000 - 25 Jan 2003  Pascal Affi N'Guessan              (b. 1953)            FPI
25 Jan 2003 -  5 Dec 2005  Seydou Elimane Diarra (2nd time)   (s.a.)               Non-party
 
5 Dec 2005 - 29 Mar 2007  Charles Konan Banny                (b. 1942 - d. 2021)  Non-party
29 Mar 2007 - 13 Mar 2012  Guillaume 
Kigbafori Soro           (b. 1972)            FNCI
                             (from 4 Dec 2010 under President Ouattara
)
 7 Dec 2010 - 11 Apr 2011  Gilbert Marie N'gbo Aké  
         (b. 1955)            Non-party
                             (under President Gbagbo
)
13 Mar 2012 - 21 Nov 2012  Jeannot Kouadio-Ahoussou
          (b. 1951)            PDCI
21 Nov 2012 - 10 Jan 2017  Daniel Kablan Duncan (2nd time)    (s.a.)               PDCI
10 Jan 2017 -  8 Jul 2020  Amadou Gon Coulibaly               (b. 1959 - d. 2020)  RDR + RHDP
 2 May 2020 -  2 Jul 2020  Hamed Bakayoko                     (b. 1969 - d. 2021)  RDR
                             (acting for absent Gon Coulibaly)
 8 Jul 2020 - 10 Mar 2021  Hamed Bakayoko                     (s.a.)               RDR
                             (acting to 4 Aug 2020)
 8 Mar 2021 - 17 Oct 2023  Patrick Jérôme Achi                (b. 1955)            RHDP
                             (acting [for Bakayoko to 10 Mar 2021] to 30 Mar 2021)
17 Oct 2023 -              Robert Beugré Mambé                (b. 1952)            RHD

Ivorian Civil War

Leader of the Patriotic Movement of Côte d'Ivoire
19 Sep 2002 - Jan 2003     Guillaume Kigbafori
Soro           (b. 1972)            MPCI
                             (in rebellion, in Bouake)

Territorial Disputes: Disputed maritime border between Côte d'Ivoire and Ghana.

Party abbreviations: FPI = Front Populaire Ivoriene (Ivorian Popular Front, social-democratic, est.1982); MPCI = Mouvement Patriotique de Côte d'Ivoire (Patriotic Movement of Ivory Coast, militant to 2005, northern regionalist, mainly Muslim, est.Oct 2002); MPIGO = Mouvement Populaire Ivoirien du Grand Ouest (Ivorian Popular Movement of the Great West, western regionalist est.2002); FNCI = Forces Nouvelles de Côte d'Ivoire (New Forces of Côte d'Ivoire, alliance of MPJ, MPCI, and MPIGO, anti-Gbagbo, est.2003); PDCI = Parti Démocratique de Côte d'Ivoire-Rassemblement Démocratique Africain (Democratic Party of Ivory Coast-African Democratic Rally, authoritarian, pan-African, conservative, 1960-1990 only legal party, est.1976); RDR = Rassemblement des Républicains (Rally of the Republicans, liberal, centrist, split from PDCI, est.1994); RHDP = Rassemblement des Houphouëtistes pour la Démocratie et la Paix (Rally of Houphouëtists for Democracy and Peace, centrist, liberal, Houphouëtism, alliance of RDR, PDCI, Mouvement des Forces de l'Avenir, Union pour la Démocratie et la Paix en Côte d'Ivoire, Union pour la Côte d'Ivoire, and from 2016 the Parti Ivoirien des Travailleurs, est.18 May 2005); Mil = Military


United Nations Missions in Côte d'Ivoire

[Flag of the United
                  Nations]

Special Representatives of the Secretary-General for Côte d'Ivoire and
Heads of the (United Nations Mission in Côte d'Ivoire
[MINUCI] to 4 Apr 2004) 
Mission of the United Nations Operation in Côte d'Ivoire (UNOCI)
 7 Feb 2003 - 31 Jan 2005  Albert Tévoedjré (Benin)           (b. 1929 - d. 2019)
 1 Feb 2005 -
11 Apr 2005  Alan Claude Doss (U.K.)(acting)    (b. 1945)
11 Apr 2005 - 15 Feb 2007  Jean-Pierre Olov Schori (Sweden)   (b. 1938)
15 Feb 2007 - 20 Nov 2007  Abou Moussa (Nigeria)(acting)      (b. 1950)
                             (officer in charge)
20 Nov 2007 - 31 Aug 2011  Choi Young-jin (South Korea)       (b. 1948)
 1 Sep 2011 –  1 Jul 2013  Albert Gerard "Bert" Koenders      (b. 1958)
                             (The Netherlands)
 5 Jul 2013 - 30 Jun 2017  Aïchatou Mindaoudou                (b. 1959)
                             Souleymane (f)(Niger)

Chief Military Liaison Officer of the UN Mission in Côte d'Ivoire (MINUCI)
 4 Jun 2003 -  4 Apr 2004  Abdul Hafiz (Bangladesh)           (b. 1957)
Commanders of the United Nations Operation in Côte d'Ivoire (UNOCI)
 4 Apr 2004 -  3 Apr 2006  Abdoulaye Fall (Senegal)           (b. 1953)
 3 Apr 2006 - 31 Mar 2010  Fernand Marcel Amoussou (Benin)    (b. 1953)
                             (acting to 12 Sep 2006) 
 1 Apr 2010 - 22 Mar 2011  Abdul Hafiz (Bangladesh)           (s.a.)
22 Mar 2011 - 13 May 2012  Gnakoudè Béréna (Togo)             (b. 1953)
13 May 2012 -  1 Jul 2014  Muhammad Iqbal Asi (Pakistan)      (b. 1962)
 1 Jul 2014 - 30 Jun 2015  Hafiz Masroor Ahmed (Pakistan)     (b. 1952)
 1 Jul 2015 - 30 Jun 2017  Didier L'Hôte (France)             (b. 1960)






© Ben Cahoon