Antarctica
 

1978: Proposed Flag (Whitney Smith)

1996: Proposed Flag (Graham Bartram)

Antarctic Treaty Secretariat Flag Adopted 20 Sep 2002

Map of Antarctica Map of Antarctic Research Stations & Territorial Claims Antarctic Treaty (23 Jun 1961) Major Stations: Amundsen-Scott (US), Belgrano (Arg.), Bernardo O'Higgins (Chile), Dumont d'Urville (Fr.), Halley (UK), Mawson (Aus.), McMurdo (US), Neumayer (Ger), Palmer (US), Scott (NZ), Troll (Norway), Vostok (Rus.), Syowa (Jap.) Currency: No Common Currency Population: Uninhabited Seasonal Research Staff: Summer (Dec.-Feb..): 4,877 (2017) Winter (Jun.-Aug..): 1,036 (2017) Total Armed Forces: Antarctic Treaty prohibits any measures of a military nature GDP: Scientific undertakings rather than commercial pursuits are the predominate human activity in Antarctica. Fishing off the coast and tourism, both based abroad, account for Antarctica's limited economic activity. Summer (Dec.-Feb.) population - 4,877 total; Argentina 601, Australia 243, Belarus 12, Belgium 40, Brazil 66, Bulgaria 22, Chile 433, China 166, Czechia 20, Ecuador 34, Finland 17, France 90, France and Italy jointly 80, Germany 104, India 113, Italy 120, Japan 130, South Korea 130, Netherlands 10, New Zealand 86, Norway 70, Peru 30, Poland 40, Russia 335, South Africa 80, Spain 98, Sweden 20, Ukraine 24, U.K. 196, U.S. 1,399, and Uruguay 68 (2017) Winter (Jun.-Aug.) population - 1,036 total; Argentina 221, Australia 52, Brazil 15, Chile 114, China 32, France 24, France and Italy jointly 13, Germany 9, India 48, Japan 40, Netherlands 10, South Korea 25, New Zealand 11, Norway 7, Poland 16, Russia 125, South Africa 15, Ukraine 12, U.K. 44, U.S. 215, and Uruguay 8 (2017) Number of Year-round Stations -  approximately 40 total; Argentina 6, Australia 3, Brazil 1, Chile 6, China 2, France 1, France and Italy jointly 1, Germany 1, India 2, Japan 1, Netherlands 1, South Korea 2, New Zealand 1, Norway 1, Poland 1, Russia 5, South Africa 1, Ukraine 1, U.K. 2, U.S. 3, and Uruguay 2 (2017) Summer-only Stations, camps, and refuges - Argentina, Australia, Belarus, Belgium, Bulgaria, Brazil, Chile, China, Czechia, Ecuador, Finland, France, Germany, India, Italy, Japan, Netherlands, South Korea, New Zealand, Norway, Peru, Poland, Russia, South Africa, Spain, Sweden, Ukraine, U.K., U.S., and Uruguay (2017); in addition, during the austral summer some nations have numerous occupied locations such as tent camps, summer-long temporary facilities, and mobile traverses in support of research . Antarctica Index Chronology Dec 1773 - Jan 1775        British Capt. James Cook (b. 1728 - d. 1779)                              circumnavigated the continent without sighting                              land. 16 Feb 1819                First sighting of the Antarctic Peninsula and South                              Shetland Islands by British Capt. William Smith                              (b. c.1790 - d. 1847).  27 Jan 1820                Russian Capt. Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen                              (Faddey Faddeyevich Bellinsgauzen (b. 1778 - d.                              1852) sights and lays claim to being the first                              person to set eyes on the Antarctic continent. 16 Nov 1820                Palmer Land discovered by American Capt. Nathaniel                              Brown Palmer (b. 1799 - d. 1877).  7 Feb 1821                U.S. Capt. John Davis (b. 1784 - d. 1861) makes                              first known landing on the continent at Hughes                              Bay on Antarctic Peninsula. 24 Feb 1831                First sighting of the Antarctic continent in the                              Indian Ocean sector (Enderby Land) by British                               Capt. John Biscoe (b. 1794 - d. 1843), in the                              Tula and Lively.  9 Feb 1839                First landing south of the Antarctic Circle by                                   British Capt. John Balleny (b. 1770 - d. 1857)                              in the Eliza Scott, discovered and landed on the                              Balleny Islands.  9 Feb 1841                First ever to enter the Ross Sea by British                              explorer Sir James Clark Ross (b. 1800 - d. 1862)                              in the ship HMS Erebus. 26 Jan 1853                First landing on Greater Antarctica (Victoria Land)                              by American Capt. Mercator Cooper (b. 1803 - d.                              1872) in the Levant.  24 Jan 1895                Carsten Borchgrevink (b. 1864 - d. 1934) made the                              first landing on Antarctica since Davis. Three                              years later he led the first party to winter on                              the continent.  1 Apr 1903 - 22 Feb 1904  First permanent scientific station established in                              the Antarctic, at Laurie Island, South Orkneys by                              the Scottish National Antarctic expedition under                              William Speirs Bruce (b. 1867 - d. 1921). 22 Feb 1904                Argentina began to occupy Antarctic lands when                              purchasing the meteorological station belonging                              to the Scottish Dr. William Speirs Bruce, on                              Laurie island, South Orkney islands. 14 Dec 1911                Roald Amundsen (b. 1872 - d. 1928) of Norway reaches                              the South Pole; on 18 Jan 1912 U.K. Capt. Robert                              Falcon Scott (b. 1868 - d. 1912) located the South                              Pole but dies on the return trip. 28 Jan 1912                Lt. Shirase Nobu (b. 1861 - d. 1941) claims the                              Antarctic territory spanning the entirety of the                              Ross Ice Shelf for Japan as Yamato Yukihara ("The                              Japan Snow Plain"), claim not recognized by Japan. 29 Nov 1929                U.S. explorer Richard E. Byrd (b. 1888 - d. 1957)                              made the first flight over the South Pole from                              Little America Base.  13 Jan 1941                German commandos board and capture two Norwegian                               factory ships in the sea north of Queen Maud Land.                              By the end of the next day, the Germans had taken                              possession of three factory ships and eleven                              catchers. The German Navy subsequently used the                              waters of the Peninsula and the sub-Antarctic                              islands as a haven from which they could venture                              forth to attack allied shipping. Their main base                              was an obscure harbor on Kergulen Island. 1943 - 1945                British dispatch a naval missions to Antarctica                              ("Operation Tabarin") which established the first                              permanent British scientific bases. 31 Oct 1956                First permanent station at South Pole built                              (Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station).  1 Jul 1957 - 31 Dec 1958  International Geophysical Year (IGY), scientists                              of 67 nations research the Antarctica environment. 24 Nov 1957 -  2 Mar 1958  First successful land traverse of Antarctica by                              British Commonwealth Trans-Antarctic expedition                              (CTAE) under Vivian Fuchs (b. 1908 - d. 1999)                              covers Weddell Sea to Ross Sea via the South Pole.  16 Dec 1957                South Geomagnetic Pole reached for the first time                              by a tractor traverse by the Soviet Union.   1 Dec 1959                Antarctic Treaty signed. 23 Jun 1961                Antarctic Treaty enters into force.  7 Jan 1978                Argentine, Emilio Marcos Palma, becomes the first                              recorded human to be born in Antarctica. 11 Mar 1978                Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Seals                              (of 11 Feb 1972) enters into force.  7 Apr 1982                Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine                              Living Resources (CCAMLR)(of 1 Aug 1980) enters                              into force.  1 Nov 1982                Agreed Measures for the Conservation of Antarctic                              Fauna and Flora (of 2 Jun 1964) enters into force. 13 Feb 1987 - Dec 1991     World Park Base a non-governmental year-round                              base located at Cape Evans on Ross Island in                              the Ross Dependency established by Greenpeace.  2 Jun 1988                Convention on the Regulation of Antarctic Mineral                              Resources (CRAMRA) signed. 14 Jan 1998                Protocol on Environmental Protection to the                              Antarctic Treaty ("Madrid Protocol")(of 4 Oct                              1991) enters into force.  1 Sep 2004                Secretariat of Antarctic Treaty inaugurated. Argentina Claim Australia Claim British Claim Chile Claim France Claim New Zealand Claim Norway Claim Brazil Germany South Africa Antarctic Treaty Secretariat

    Antarctic Treaty — The Antarctic Treaty, signed on 1 Dec 1959 and entered into force on 23 Jun 1961, establishes the legal framework for the management of Antarctica. Administration is carried out through consultative member meetings.
    Summary: Article 1 - area to be used for peaceful purposes only; military activity, such as weapons testing, is prohibited, but military personnel and equipment may be used for scientific research or any other peaceful purpose; Article 2 - freedom of scientific investigation and cooperation shall continue; Article 3 - free exchange of information and personnel, cooperation with the UN and other international agencies; Article 4 - does not recognize, dispute, or establish territorial claims and no new claims shall be asserted while the treaty is in force; Article 5 - prohibits nuclear explosions or disposal of radioactive wastes; Article 6 - includes under the treaty all land and ice shelves south of 60 degrees 00 minutes south and reserves high seas rights; Article 7 - treaty-state observers have free access, including aerial observation, to any area and may inspect all stations, installations, and equipment; advance notice of all expeditions and of the introduction of military personnel must be given; Article 8 - allows for jurisdiction over observers and scientists by their own states; Article 9 - frequent consultative meetings take place among member nations; Article 10 - treaty states will discourage activities by any country in Antarctica that are contrary to the treaty; Article 11 - disputes to be settled peacefully by the parties concerned or, ultimately, by the ICJ; Articles 12, 13, 14 - deal with upholding, interpreting, and amending the treaty among involved nations; other agreements - some 200 recommendations adopted at treaty consultative meetings and ratified by governments; a mineral resources agreement was signed in 1988 but remains unratified; the Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty was signed 4 Oct 1991 and entered into force 14 Jan 1998; this agreement provides for the protection of the Antarctic environment through six specific annexes: 1) environmental impact assessment, 2) conservation of Antarctic fauna and flora, 3) waste disposal and waste management, 4) prevention of marine pollution, 5) area protection and management and 6) liability arising from environmental emergencies; it prohibits all activities relating to mineral resources except scientific research; a permanent Antarctic Treaty Secretariat was established in 2004 in Buenos Aires, Argentina.
 

Antarctic Treaty Secretariat

Executive Secretaries (in Buenos Aires, Argentina)
 1 Sep 2004 - 31 Aug 2009  Johannes "Jan" Huber (Netherlands) (b. 1947)
 1 Sep 2009 - 31 Aug 2017  Manfred Reinke (Germany)           (b. 1952)
 1 Sep 2017 -              Albert Alexander Lluberas Bonaba
                             (Uruguay)

Antarctic Treaty membership (54) 

Dates of  Membership	Member Nations
23 Jun 1961	Argentina, Australia, Belgium, Chile, France, Japan, New Zealand, Norway, Poland, South Africa, Soviet Union1, United Kingdom, United States
14 Jun 1962	Czechoslovakia2
20 May 1965	Denmark
30 Mar 1967	The Netherlands
15 Sep 1971	Romania
19 Nov 1974	East Germany3
16 May 1975	Brazil
11 Sep 1978	Bulgaria
5 Feb 1979	West Germany3
11 Jan 1980	Uruguay
16 Mar 1981	Papua New Guinea4
18 Mar 1981	Italy
10 Apr 1981	Peru
31 Mar 1982	Spain
8 Jun 1983	China
19 Aug 1983	India
27 Jan 1984	Hungary
24 Apr 1984	Sweden
15 May 1984	Finland
16 Aug 1984	Cuba
28 Nov 1986	South Korea
8 Jan 1987	Greece
21 Jan 1987	North Korea
25 Aug 1987	Austria
15 Sep 1987	Ecuador
4 May 1988	Canada
31 Jan 1989	Colombia
15 Nov 1990	Switzerland
31 Jul 1991	Guatemala
28 Oct 1992	Ukraine
25 Jan 1996	Turkey
1 Jan 1993	Czech Republic, Slovakia
24 May 1999	Venezuela
17 May 2001	Estonia
27 Dec 2006	Belarus
30 May 2008	Monaco
29 Jan 2010	Portugal
31 Oct 2011	Malaysia
1 Mar 2012	Pakistan
27 Jan 2015	Kazakhstan
23 Mar 2015	Mongolia
13 Oct 2015	Iceland
22 Apr 2019	Slovenia
1Soviet Union dissolved 25 Dec 1991, succeeded by Russia. 2Czechoslovakia dissolved 31 Dec 1992; on 1 Jan 1993 succeeded by Czech Republic and Slovakia. 3East and West Germany united 3 Oct 1990. 4date of deposit of notification of succession by Papua New Guinea; effective 16 Sep 1975 the date of its independence.

Argentina

Tierra del Fuego, Antarctica, and the Island of the South Atlantic (Tierra del Fuego, Antárctica y Islas del Atlántico Sur) Argentine claim, 74°W and 25°W; overlaps British and Chilean claims. Claimed: 8 Feb 1942

Australian Antarctic Territory (Australian claim, 160°E to 142°E and 136°E to 45°E):
Claimed: 13 Jun 1933 

Magellanes and Chilean Antarctica (Magallanes y Antárctica Chilena) Chilean claim, 53°W to 90°W; overlaps Argentine and British claims. Claimed: 6 Nov 1940

French Southern and Antarctic Lands (Terres Australes et Antarctiques Françaises) Adelie Land; includes French claim, 142°E to 136°W. Claimed: 21 Nov 1924

New Zealand Antarctic Territory (Ross Dependency) New Zealand claim, 160°E to 150°W. Claimed: 30 Jul 1923

Norwegian Antarctic Territory (Dronning Maud Land) Queen Maud Land; Norwegian claim, 45°E to 20°E with Peter I Island. Claimed: 14 Jan 1938

British Antarctic Territories (Graham Land) British claim, 20° W and 80°W; Argentine and Chilean claims overlap. Claimed: 21 Jul 1908

Brazil

Brazilian Antarctica (Antártida Brasileira) proposed claim, 28°W to 53°W south of 60°; zone overlaps Argentine, British and Chilean claims. Zone of Interest first proposed: 1986

Germany

German New Swabia Land (Neu-Schwabenland) area explored 20°E to 10°W, overlaps Norwegian claim. Area was not formally claimed by Germany. explored: 19 Jan - 6 Feb 1939

South African Antarctica South African unverified claim: 1963 - 1993?

Antarctica Territorial Disputes: The Antarctic Treaty freezes claims (see Antarctic Treaty Summary in Government type entry); sections (some overlapping) claimed by Argentina, Australia, Chile, France, New Zealand, Norway, and U.K.; Australia, Chile, and Argentina claim Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) rights or similar over 200 nm extensions seaward from their continental claims, but like the claims themselves, these zones are not accepted by other countries; 22 of 29 Antarctic consultative nations have made no claims to Antarctic territory (although Russia and the U.S. have reserved the right to do so) and do not recognize the claims of the other nations; no claims have been made in the sector between 90 degrees west and 150 degrees west; the International Whaling Commission created a sanctuary around the entire continent to deter catches by countries claiming to conduct scientific whaling; Australia has established a similar preserve in the waters around its territorial claim.